Table 4 Interactive effects between POSTN and SOST genes on BMD variation by MDR and conditional logistic regression analyses   Either LS or FN LS FN SNP of POSTN rs9547970 rs9547970 rs9547970 SNP of SOST rs2301682 rs9899889 KU-57788 cell line rs9899889 rs865429 rs865429 rs2301682   MDR Cross validation

consistency 20/20 19/20 20/20 Prediction accuracy 0.57 0.57 0.56 Sign test P-value <0.0001 0.001 0.0087 Conditional logistic regression analysis P value 0.001 0.002 0.002 Several output parameters are used to select the best interaction model in MDR. The cross-validation consistency score measures the degree of consistency with which the reported interaction is identified as the most evident model. The testing accuracy score measures the degree to which the interaction accurately predicts case–control status (accuracy score ≥0.55 is suggested as “interesting”). The best model

is the one with the maximal cross-validation consistency and minimal prediction error. When cross-validation consistency is higher for one model and prediction error is lower for another model, the model involving the fewest loci/factors is taken as the best. The statistical significance (sign test P value) derived empirically from 1,000 permutations was adjusted for multiple comparisons EMSA showed the disappearance of CDX1 binding site in the variant allele of rs9547970 To detect the potential function of the identified variant, we used the FASTSNP program to predict the function of rs9547970 [24]. Bioinformatics analysis Erlotinib molecular weight suggests that the allele change (A/G) at rs9547970

should demolish one binding site of CDX1 (caudal type homeobox 1) (MIM 600746). We therefore conducted an EMSA to confirm the potential changes of CDX1 binding to POSTN caused by rs9547970. In the gel shift assay (Fig. 2), the 33-bp oligonucleotides that contained both allelic variants of rs9547970, representing native P450 inhibitor and mutated CDX1 binding sites, were assayed with nuclear extract of HEK293 cells transfected with pCMV-CDX1. We found a specific binding of CDX1 from nuclear extract of HEK293 cells transfected with pCMV6-CDX1 to the wild-type site centering the rs9547970 major allele A of POSTN. No binding was observed with oligonucleotide containing the minor allele G. Binding to the major A allele resulted in a complex that was specifically competed by 660-fold excess of unlabeled probe containing the major A allele. The results indicate that the A/G change at rs9547970 demolishes a CDX1 binding site in the POSTN gene. Fig. 2 Electrophoretic mobility shift and competition assays with nuclear extract of HEK293 cells transfected with pCMV-CDX1 and allelic variants of SNP rs9547970 in POSTN.

Pesticides are known to differentially impact bacterial survival and growth. In a study conducted to determine the effect of pesticides on bacterial survival, Salmonella spp. were best able to survive and Listeria spp. were least able to survive in pesticide solutions, among all the bacteria tested. Bravo, the fungicide applied closest to the sampling date in this study, has been found to reduce bacterial growth, although it was less inhibitory than other products tested [34]. The addition of pesticides to the different water sources used in this study might have reduced bacterial community differentiation in the two resulting fruit

see more environments. The smooth texture of tomato skin may also prevent attachment and result in bacteria being washed away by rain or spray water. Although our results point to the lack of major effects of the two water sources used for pesticide applications, confirming this at the species level

for human enteric pathogens such as Salmonella, would be crucial for establishing the potential safety of surface water use for contact applications. In addition, our sampling depth analysis suggests that deeper sampling is needed for all the environments, but especially for the more diverse ws, to capture at least 90% of the community members Recent studies of analysis methodologies in bacterial diversity and metagenomics projects have revealed that small modifications or substitution of similar tools may potentially result selleck chemicals in significant changes in the overall biological conclusions [35–37]. In the rapidly evolving field of genomics, there

aminophylline are few concrete standards, and the sophisticated computational protocols being developed certainly will always be sensitive to some uncertainty in the analysis parameters. To examine the sensitivity of our results to the methodology employed, we re-ran our analysis using two parallel 16S rRNA protocols from the CloVR package and found large agreement with our major results. Additionally, the 454 platform itself has ongoing issues regarding artificial replicate generation [38] and homopolymer identification errors [39], both of which contribute to overestimation of species-level diversity in 16S rRNA-based studies. Though it is likely that our estimates of absolute species-level diversity are indeed inflated, the consistency in relative diversity differences between samples across multiple analyses is encouraging and lends support to the validity of our initial computational results and final biological and ecological conclusions. Conclusions Our research has generated the first culture-independent next-generation sequencing data set for the bacterial microbiology associated with the phyllosphere of a tomato crop under agricultural management. There are a myriad of agricultural practices that may play a role in the contamination of tomatoes by human pathogenic bacteria.

It follows that a protein with the ability to sense environmental stress or the energy status of the cell could be a significant regulator of DNA replication. Our laboratory is currently investigating whether serp1129 and serp1130 are involved in the transcriptional regulation of the MMSO and/or other replication genes. Conclusions These studies demonstrated that the S. epidermidis MMSO contains two previously

unidentified ORFs (serp1129 and serp1130) and that sigA transcription is regulated by a σβ promoter. The transcriptional regulation of sigA by σB suggests that the staphylococcal σB regulon is regulated at both the transcriptional and post-transcriptional levels. Further assays demonstrated that Serp1129 is an ATP/GTP binding protein; its connection to other Metabolism inhibitor functions found

within genes encoded by the MMSO is unknown. Finally, although sigA was actively transcribed in both the exponential and post-exponential phases of growth, serp1130, serp1129 and dnaG were most transcriptionally active during exponential growth. We are currently testing the hypothesis that genes involved in DNA replication, including the MMSO, are co-regulated in the exponential growth phase through a common regulator or metabolite. Acknowledgements This work was supported in part by a grant from the Department of Defense, Defense Advanced Research Program Agency (award W911NF0510275). References 1. Noirot-Gros MF, Dervyn E, Wu LJ, Mervelet P, Errington selleck chemical J, Ehrlich SD, Noirot P: An expanded view of bacterial DNA replication. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2002,99(12):8342–8347.PubMedCrossRef 2. Versalovic J, Koeuth T, Britton R, Geszvain K, Lupski JR: Conservation and evolution of the rpsU-dnaG-rpoD macromolecular synthesis operon in bacteria. Mol Microbiol 1993,8(2):343–355.PubMedCrossRef 3. Lupski JR, Smiley BL, Godson GN: Regulation of MycoClean Mycoplasma Removal Kit the rpsU-dnaG-rpoD macromolecular synthesis operon and the initiation of DNA replication in Escherichia coli K-12. Mol Gen Genet 1983,189(1):48–57.PubMedCrossRef 4. Lupski JR, Godson GN: The rpsU-dnaG-rpoD macromolecular synthesis operon of E. coli . Cell 1984,39(2 Pt 1):251–252.PubMedCrossRef

5. Lupski JR, Ruiz AA, Godson GN: Promotion, termination, and anti-termination in the rpsU-dnaG-rpoD macromolecular synthesis operon of E. coli K-12. Mol Gen Genet 1984,195(3):391–401.PubMedCrossRef 6. Briat JF, Gilman MZ, Chamberlin MJ: Bacillus subtilis sigma 28 and Escherichia coli sigma 32 (htpR) are minor sigma factors that display an overlapping promoter specificity. J Biol Chem 1985,260(4):2038–2041.PubMed 7. Wang LF, Doi RH: Nucleotide sequence and organization of Bacillus subtilis RNA polymerase major sigma (sigma 43) operon. Nucleic Acids Res 1986,14(10):4293–4307.PubMedCrossRef 8. Wang LF, Price CW, Doi RH: Bacillus subtilis dnaE encodes a protein homologous to DNA primase of Escherichia coli . J Biol Chem 1985,260(6):3368–3372.PubMed 9.

Even though studies demonstrated that carrier screening for CF and HbPs did not elicit adverse psychological effects (Watson et al. 1992; Lakeman et al. 2008), proven carriership is buy Fostamatinib likely to be unexpected to couples without a family history. The lessons from Clinical Genetics are that couples should be enabled to consider beforehand

what consequences screening might have and whether they are willing and able to accept these, and to anticipate these consequences, especially since couples indicated they would use this knowledge for their reproductive decisions (Lakeman et al. 2008). Here lies an important task for the providers of PCC. In our view, decision counselling regarding preconception genetic screening should

address the genetic Talazoparib ic50 risks of conceiving an affected child, the possible treatment options, the possibilities to prevent passing on the disease allele, and its consequences, the psychological impact of the various possibilities and the meaning of these possibilities to the couple. Therefore, the PCC counsellor must be skilled in directive and non-directive counselling and must have knowledge of the relevant reproductive options and associated psychological challenges in case of carriership or in case an indication for referral to a Clinical Genetics centre is found. The PCC counsellor should be aware that genetic and non-genetic risks pose a threat to the idealized pregnancy. A pregnancy, or anticipated pregnancy, fulfils a number of psychological functions (sense of adult identity, enhancement of the self, new object relationship, developmental milestone). Couples may experience tension between the desire to have, nurture and raise a child on the one hand and their sense of responsibility on the other hand. Becoming aware of threats to a Rebamipide desired pregnancy may arouse emotions in the couple, which require attentive counselling. Research is necessary to explore the psychological impact of genetic counselling and offering genetic screening in preconception

primary care. Declaration The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest. Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License which permits any use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author(s) and the source are credited. References Al-Arrayed S, Giugliani R, Hamamy H, Ten Kate LP, Penchaszadeh V (2010) Community genetics services; report of a who consulation on community genetics in low and middle income countries. World Health Organization, Geneva Atrash H, Jack BW, Johnson K (2008) Preconception care: a 2008 update. Curr Opin Obstet Gynecol 20:581–589PubMedCrossRef Austin J (2010) Re-conceptualizing risk in genetic counseling: implications for clinical practice.

Generally, the isolates clustered together with symbiont sequences obtained directly from the antennae of field-collected specimens of the corresponding host species. However, the strain alb539-2 of biovar ‘albopilosus’ affiliated to the biovars ‘parkeri’ and ‘ventilabris’ instead of the representative sequence of its own biovar

(Figure 3). Analyses based on 202 AFLP markers were completely congruent with the sequence-based trees, supporting the robustness of the phylogenetic analyses and the displacement of strain alb539-2 (Figure 3, Additional file 5: Figure S1). A comparison of the symbiont phylogeny with a previously published phylogeny of the hosts based on one mitochondrial and five nuclear genes supported earlier findings of frequent horizontal buy Rapamycin transfer of symbionts among host species over evolutionary timescales (Figure 4) [28]. Panobinostat price Figure 3 Phylogenetic analysis of ‘ S. philanthi ’ isolates in respect to the sequences obtained from field-collected antennal samples. Antennal isolates are indicated by their strain designation as explained in the Methods section (first three letters indicate host species), and the respective host species is additionally given behind each clade. Sequences directly

obtained from beewolf antennae are indicated by “CaSP” and were obtained from a previous study

[28]. The tree was reconstructed using nearly complete 16S rRNA genes and 660 bp-long gyrB gene fragments; values at the nodes indicate Bayesian posterior probabilities. Geographic distribution of beewolf taxa and the origin of isolated symbionts are indicated by branches of different colours on phylogenetic tree: Africa (yellow), Europe (red), mixed African/ Eurasian distribution (dashed yellow/red line), North and South America (purple and PAK5 blue, respectively). Bacteria used as outgroups to root the tree are indicated in Additional file 4: Table S4. The discrepant phylogenetic placements of Philanthus albopilosus symbiont sequences from clones and isolates, respectively, are highlighted by grey boxes. Figure 4 Phylogeny of ‘ S. philanthus ’ biovars in respect to their morphology, nutritional requirements and host phylogeny. The phylogeny of bacterial symbionts was reconstructed using nearly complete 16S rRNA genes, as well as gyrA and gyrB gene fragments (566 and 660 bp in length, respectively). The host phylogeny was obtained from [28]. Colored boxes around host and symbiont names denote host genera (green, Philanthinus; blue, Philanthus; red, Trachypus). Values at the nodes of the phylogenetic trees indicate Bayesian posterior probabilities.

Numerical classification of thermophilic streptomycetes showed three major, five minor and two single-member clusters [10]. Analysis of the 16S rRNA genes and morphological and chemical properties indicate their classification within the genus Streptomyces [11, 12]. Most thermophilic Streptomyces species have growth temperature ranges from 28 to 55°C and

so are only moderately thermophilic [11, 12]. However, some thermophilic Streptomyces species can grow up to 68°C [13]; the optimum growth temperature of S. thermoautotrophicus is 65°C and no growth is observed below 40°C, so it is a truly thermophilic strain [14]. Growth of thermophilic Streptomyces strains is rapid at high temperature selleck [15]; for example, S. thermoviolaceus has a doubling time of 1 h at 50°C [16]. Thermophilic Streptomyces species INCB018424 in vitro produce thermostable enzymes and antibiotics [15], such as xylanase [17], alpha-amylase [18], granaticin [16] and anthramycin [19]. Since thermophilic Streptomyces strains lack a genetic manipulation system, mesophilic strains (e.g. S. lividans) have been employed for expression of some genes or antibiotic

biosynthetic gene clusters from thermophilic Streptomyces species [[20–22]]. We report here the development of a gene cloning system in a fast-growing (about twice the rate of S. coelicolor) and moderately thermophilic (growing at both 30°C and 50°C) Streptomyces strain, and successful heterologous expression of antibiotic biosynthetic gene clusters from both thermophilic and mesophilic Streptomyces species. Results and Discussion Isolation and identification of thermophilic Dehydratase Streptomyces strains from various soil samples To isolate thermophilic Streptomyces

strains, various soil samples from China were collected (see Methods). As summarized in Table 1, 22, 11 and eight strains were isolated from samples of garden soil, weed compost and swine manure, respectively. Thermophilic Streptomyces species have been isolated from composts, soil and sewage [23], as well as lakes and hot-springs [13]. Our results reinforce the idea of a widespread occurrence of these organisms. Table 1 Strains used in this study Strains Genotype or description Source or reference Streptomyces         S. coelicolor M145 SCP1- SCP2- [6]     S. lividans 1326 SLP2 SLP3 [6]     S. lividans ZX7 pro-2 str-6 rec-46 dnd SLP2- SLP3- [37]     S.

However, to clarify the direct effect of SP and the synergistic effects of SP administration in combination with exercise on energy metabolism more in detail, it would be important to add a resting group to the present experimental setting or to extend the experimental period. Conclusions

In conclusion, these results suggest that SP intake can improve exercise performance. Therefore, SP is considered to confer Opaganib molecular weight beneficial effects upon athletes, in whom an exercise ability and fat loss are required. It will be necessary to clarify the effect of SP on endurance capacity in trained human athletes and also to understand the mechanism that underlies the effect of SP on fat and carbohydrate metabolism-related gene RAD001 expression in the skeletal muscles in future studies. Acknowledgments This study was supported by a grant (NRF-2011-32A-G00050) from the National Research Foundation, which is funded by the Korean Government. References 1. Lim KW, Suh HJ: The functional foods for sports and exercise fields. Korean J Phys Edu 2002, 41:519–531. 2. Maughan RJ, Depiesse F, Geyer H: International association of athletics federations. The use of dietary supplements by athletes. J Sports Sci 2007, 25:103–113. 10.1080/02640410701607395CrossRef 3. Mazanov J, Petróczi A, Bingham J, Holloway A: Towards an empirical model of performance enhancing supplement

use: a pilot study among high performance UK athletes. J Sci Med Sport 2008, 11:185–190. 10.1016/j.jsams.2007.01.003PubMedCrossRef 4. Kreider RB, Wilborn CD, Taylor L, Campbell B, Almada AL, Collins R, Cooke M, Earnest CP, Greenwood M, Kalman DS, Kerksick CM, Kleiner SM, Leutholtz B, Lopez H, Lowery LM, Mendel

R, Smith A, Spano M, Wildman R, Willoughby DS, Ziegenfuss TN, Antonio J: ISSN exercise & sport nutrition review: research & recommendations. J Int Soc Sports Nutr 2010, 2:7.CrossRef 5. Petroczi A, Naughton DP: The age-gender-status profile of high performing athletes in the UK taking nutritional supplements: lessons for the future. J Int Soc Sports Nutr 2008, 10:5. 6. Stasio MJ, Curry K, Sutton-Skinner KM, Glassman DM: Over-the-counter medication and herbal or dietary supplement ADP ribosylation factor use in college: dose frequency and relationship to self-reported distress. J Am Coll Health 2008, 56:535–547. 10.3200/JACH.56.5.535-548PubMedCrossRef 7. Tokish JM, Kocher MS, Hawkins RJ: Ergogenic aids: a review of basic science, performance, side effects, and status in sports. Am J Sports Med 2004, 32:1543–1553. 10.1177/0363546504268041PubMedCrossRef 8. Seo CW, Um IC, Rico CW, Kang MY: Antihyperlipidemic and body fat-lowering effects of silk proteins with different fibroin/sericin compositions in mice fed with high fat diet. J Agric Food Chem 2011, 59:4192–4197. 10.1021/jf104812gPubMedCrossRef 9. Shin MJ, Park MJ, Young MS, Lee YS, Nam MS, Park IS: Effects of silk protein hydrolysates on blood glucose and serum lipid in db/db diabetic mice. J Korean Soc Food Sci Nutr 2006, 35:1343–1348.CrossRef 10.

Since the gastric habitat of H. pylori is likely to be rich in DNA damaging agents, it will be of interest to study the roles of NER components in H. pylori

genetic diversification under in vivo conditions, e.g. in suitable animal models. Finally, the results show the functional versatility of apparently conserved housekeeping proteins such as the NER components, emphasizing the importance of comparative functional analyses in diverse organisms, such as other naturally competent and recombining bacteria. Methods Bacterial strains and culture conditions Bacterial strains used in this study are listed in Additional file 4: Table S1. H. pylori wild type strains 26695 [21] and J99 [38] were cultured from frozen stocks on blood agar plates (Blood agar base II, Oxoid, Wesel, Germany) buy PD0325901 containing 10% horse blood and a mix of antibiotics (vancomycin [10 mg/l], polymyxin B [3.2 mg/l], amphotericin B [4 mg/l], and trimethoprim [5 mg/l]). The agar plates were kept in an incubator with 5% O2, 10% CO2 and 85% N2 at 37°C for 24–48 h. Mutant strains were cultivated on blood agar plates containing kanamycin (20 μg/ml), chloramphenicol (20 μg/ml), or both antibiotics as required. Liquid cultures were grown in brain heart infusion (BHI, Oxoid) medium with yeast extract

(2.5 g/l), 10% heat inactivated horse serum and an antibiotics cocktail (see above) in microaerobic atmosphere using air-tight jars (Oxoid) and Anaerocult® C gas generating bags (Merck). For the DNA cloning experiments, we used E. coli strains DH5α BMS 354825 [39] and MC1061 [40]. These strains were grown in LB broth or on LB plates (Lennox L Broth, Invitrogen GmbH, Karlsruhe, Germany) supplemented with ampicillin (200 μg/ml), chloramphenicol (20 μg/ml) and/or kanamycin

(20 μg/ml) as required. DNA techniques All standard procedures (cloning, DNA amplification, purification and manipulation) were performed according to standard protocols [41]. Total genomic bacterial DNA was prepared using the QIAamp DNA Minikit (QIAGEN, Hilden, Germany). Large-scale purification of bacterial chromosomal DNA was Etofibrate performed using QIAGEN Genomic-tip 100/G columns according to the manufacturer’s instructions. Plasmid DNA from E. coli strains was isolated using QIAGEN tip 100 columns. Insertion mutagenesis in H. pylori The construction of uvrA uvrB uvrC and uvrD mutants by natural transformation-mediated allelic exchange was performed as described previously [42]. A list of the oligonucleotides used for mutagenesis, including the introduced restriction sites is provided in Additional file 4: Table S2. Briefly, the target genes were amplified by PCR and cloned into pUC18. The resulting plasmids (Additional file 4: Table S3) were used for inverse PCR amplification.

Guidry SP, Poole GV: The anatomy of appendicitis. Am Surg 1994, 60 (1) : 68–71.PubMed 15. Marbury WB: The retroperitoneal (retrocolic) appendix. Ann Surg 1938, 107 (5) : 819–28.PubMedCrossRef Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Authors’ contributions HK, JD and RG participated in the care of the patient, including the operative part. HK, JD and RG envisioned the concept of the manuscript. HK wrote the first draft of the manuscript JD and RG critically reviewed

the manuscript. HK, JD and RG all read and approved the final manuscript.”
“Introduction Multiple diverticulosis of the jejunum constitutes an uncommon pathology of the small bowel. The disease selleck compound is often asymptomatic and must be taken into consideration in cases of unexplained malabsorption, anemia, Selleckchem R788 chronic abdominal pain and discomfort. Related complications such as diverticulitis, hemorrhage, obstruction and perforation present high mortality and morbidity

rates. We herein report a case of a 55 year-old man presented at the emergency department because of acute abdominal pain, vomiting and fever. Preoperative radiological examination followed by laparotomy revealed multiple and giant jejunal diverticula causing intestinal obstruction. We also review the literature for this uncommon disease. Case Presentation A 55-year old man arrived at the emergency department complaining of 48-hour lasting intense abdominal pain and vomiting. The patient had a free medical history and was not receiving any drugs ifenprodil at that time. He mentioned a two-year-lasting remittent abdominal pain, fullness and often abdominal distension. The

patient also mentioned a particular intolerance of pulse and vegetables. Physical examination revealed a distended abdomen with increased bowel peristalsis. Rectal examination was normal. Only his temperature was elevated (38.2°C) while other vital parameters were within normal limits. Abnormal laboratory findings included leukocytosis (13300/mm3), anemia (Hct:30%), hypokalemia (3.2 mmol/l) and hypoalbuminemia (2.80 mmol/l). C-reactive protein was also elevated (4.57 mg/dl). A plain abdominal X-ray showed multiple air-fluid levels and dilated intestinal loops suggesting intestinal obstruction but not signs of perforation (Figure 1). Abdominal ultrasonography revealed dilated and hyperactive intestinal loops but not free intraperitoneal fluid. Gallstones were also incidentally found. The abdominal computed tomography (CT) scan demonstrated multiple distended small bowel loops and jejunal diverticula. The patient had a nasogastric tube and received intravenously fluids, antibiotics (ciprofloxacin and metronidazole) and parenteral nutrition. Within next 72 hours, temperature and leukocytosis were decreased while the X-ray of the abdomen did not reveal gas-fluid levels.

typhi and S. paratyphi is not available. In this study we investigated the molecular basis of resistance and the epidemiology

Sotrastaurin in vitro of 25 S. typhi and 66 S. paratyphi blood isolates that were recovered from hospitalized patients in Shenzhen City, Southern China over 6-year period. The cases were retrospectively examined for epidemiologic analysis. Methods The study site was the Shenzhen People’s Hospital, a 1090-bed medical center for patients who reside in Shenzhen, Guangdong Province of Southern China, with an estimated population of 12 million people. This study has been performed with the approval of Ethics committee of Shenzhen People’s Hospital (Shenzhen, China). Bacterial isolates and susceptibility testing Ninety-one non-duplicate isolates of Salmonella (25 S. typhi, 64 S. paratyphi A, 1 S. paratyphi B, and 1 S. paratyphi C) were consecutively obtained from blood cultures of 91 patients with typhoid or paratyphoid from 2002 through 2007 (2002, n = 13; 2003, n = 27; 2004, n = 21; 2005, n = 6; 2006, n = 15; 2007,

n = 9). All isolates were identified with standard biochemical tests and specific antisera (Institute of Biological Products, Lanzhou, China). The MICs of nalidixic acid and the other antimicrobial agents were determined by agar dilution method according to Clinical and Laboratory Standard Institute (CLSI) M7-A7 [5] and were interpreted according to CLSI performance standard M100-S17 [6]. The antimicrobials were supplied and Fluorometholone Acetate stored according to the manufacturer’s instructions. Escherichia check details coli ATCC 25922 and Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 27853 were used as quality control strains for susceptibility testing. Multidrug-resistant strains were defined as those resistant to ampicillin, chloramphenicol, and trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole (TMP-SMZ) [7]. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and DNA sequencing All 91 isolates were screened for the qnr (qnrA, qnrB, and qnrS) genes by multiplex PCR [8] and for aac(6′)-Ib by PCR [9]. PCR amplification

of the quinolone resistance-determining regions (QRDRs) of gyrA, gyrB, parC, and parE was performed in all isolates as described previously [10]. Mutations in the gyrA, gyrB, parC, and parE genes were identified by DNA sequencing. The PCR products were purified by using a QIAquick PCR purification kit (Qiagen, Hilden, Germany). DNA sequencing of both strands was performed by the direct sequencing method with an ABI Prism 3100 generic analyzer (Applied Biosystems, Foster City, CA), and the DNA sequences of the QRDRs of gyrA, gyrB, parC, and parE were compared with the DNA sequences of the QRDRs of S. typhi, S. paratyphi A, and S. paratyphi B (GenBank: NC_004631, NC_006511, NC_010102).