The numerical oscillations visible in the Fluidity output become negligible at 1000 m resolution, with little difference between results at resolutions between 1000 m and 125 m learn more ( Fig. 2). The observed numerical oscillations are caused by the sharpness of the leading and trailing edges of the slide, where minimal smoothing of 1000 m was used ( Haugen et al., 2005). Increasing

the smoothness of these edges (by increasing S in (9)) removes the oscillations. Clearly, the mesh resolution must be high enough to capture the smoothing length or the slide will have an effective flat front. To check that this was the cause of the spurious oscillations, the 5000 m resolution case was re-run with a smoothing length of 7500 m. The results show much reduced oscillations, but with the

wave form shifted due to the new location of maximum height ( Fig. 2). This experiment confirms the correct implementation of the boundary condition and shows how the assumed shape of the slide dictates the mesh resolution required in the slide area. A slide with steeper leading and trailing edges requires higher spatial resolution to eliminate numerical oscillations. To extend our validation IDH inhibitor drugs of Fluidity’s new slide-tsunami model to three dimensions, we also replicated a simulation of landslide generated waves that are only weakly dispersive (Ma et al., 2013). Recent work by Ma et al. (2013) simulated the wave train produced by a rigid-block model in a three-dimensional domain on a constant slope. We can therefore compare Fluidity to the results shown in Ma et al. (2013). The domain is 8 ×× 8 km, with a constant slope of 4°. We set the minimum depth to be 12 m and the maximum to be 400 m. We used a horizontal model resolution

was 25 m in x   and y   and explored the influence of vertical resolution by performing simulations with 1–4 layers. Ma et al. (2013) use a different slide geometry to that described above, based on the work of Enet and Grilli (2007). The slide geometry is given by: equation(13) hs=hmax1-∊1coshkbx1coshkwy-∊where kb=2C/b,kw=2C/wkb=2C/b,kw=2C/w and C=acosh(1/∊)C=acosh(1/∊). The slide has length b=686b=686 m, width w=343w=343 m and thickness hmax=24hmax=24 Bortezomib m. The truncation parameter, ∊∊ is 0.717. The slides moves according to: equation(14) s(t)=s0lncoshtt0where s0=ut2/a0,t0=uta0,a0=0.27 m s−2, and ut=21.09ut=21.09 m s−1 as detailed in Ma et al. (2013). We use these definitions of the slide height and speed for comparisons to Ma et al. (2013). The resulting wave is very similar in magnitude and waveform to that shown in Ma et al. (2013), even using only a single layer in the vertical (Fig. 3). Convergence of the Fluidity model results is observed for three or more element layers (c.f. 40 layers used by Ma et al. (2013)), indicating that the wave is only weakly dispersive. In more detail, Fluidity produces slightly lower amplitude waves than those reported by Ma et al. (2013) (Fig.

There was no evidence for titer–age interactions. The number of participants with ILI confirmed as influenza was small (Fig. S1), and associations between SRT1720 chemical structure HI titer and illness amongst those infected were not significant, although there was trend for participants who developed ILI after H3N2 infection in season 2 to have lower pre-season titers (Fig. S3). To further investigate whether non-HI antibodies contribute to protection against infection we assessed the effect of infection in S1 or S2 on infection in S2 or S3 respectively, when the first infection did not induce HI antibodies to the second infection (Table 3). This analysis was limited to comparisons across different subtypes

with the exception of H1N1 in S2, which was not associated with production of HI antibodies to pandemic H1N1 in S3 (p = 0.921). Associations between influenza A and B infections were investigated to verify whether effects reflect adaptive antibody responses as opposed to non-specific mechanisms. For S2, there was no detectable effect

of prior H1N1 infection on subsequent H3N2 infection or vice versa but the numbers infected were small and confidence intervals were large, particularly for the effects of SB431542 H3N2. However, infection with H1N1 in S2 was associated with a clear reduction in the risk of pandemic H1N1 infection in S3, whereas B (Yamagata) had the opposite effect and H3N2 had no significant effect. There was no similar effect of B in S1 on H1N1 in S2 despite similar sample sizes. The effects of H1N1 and B infection in S2 on pandemic H1N1 infection in S3 were maintained after adjusting for age and pre-season HI titer, and when both prior H1N1 and B were included together in the same model. In subjects whose influenza immunity has been shaped by prior natural infection without vaccination, protection

against infection was significantly associated with homologous HI titer for H3N2 and B Yamagata lineage but not for H1N1. However, protection against H1N1 infection was associated with increasing Mannose-binding protein-associated serine protease age, and protection against pandemic H1N1 was also associated with prior confirmed seasonal H1N1 infection, even though HI antibodies were rarely detected. It was also clear that HI antibodies were not always induced following H1N1 infection and titers induced were low relative to H3N2 infection. The lower levels of H1N1 HI seroconversion following virologically confirmed infection means that we may have underestimated the proportion of participants that were H1N1 infected, and this potential under-ascertainment of infections would be concentrated amongst those with low baseline titers. This could be one factor that decreases the likelihood of detecting a significant protective effect of H1N1 HI titers, but also indicates a difference between the subtypes with respect to HI antibody.

001). Accordingly, adenocarcinomas had significantly lower LKB1 expression (p < 0.001),

lower LKB1 CN (p = 0.003) and higher KRAS expression (p = 0.035) compared to the non-adenocarcinoma group. Also consistent with previous reports, smoking was associated with LKB1 and KRAS mutation [20]: all samples that were mutant for LKB1 were smokers and only one KRAS mutant was a non-smoker, although the association was not significant. Both LKB1 and KRAS mutation were associated with earlier T stage. Gender and race were not associated with LKB1 or KRAS measurement. Alterations of LKB1 and KRAS were Selleckchem AC220 further interrogated as a function of GE and CN ( Fig. 1 and Fig. 2). LKB1 mutation was significantly associated with lower GE ( Fig. 1A, p = 0.002) and lower CN ( Fig. GSK126 concentration 1C, p < 0.001). On the contrary, KRAS mutation was associated with higher expression ( Fig. 2A, p < 0.001). There is no significant association between KRAS mutation and KRAS CN ( Fig. 2C). CN and GE are positively correlated in both LKB1 and

KRAS ( Fig. 1 and Fig. 2, p < 0.001). Seventeen of the patients had brain metastasis during the follow up. Patients’ characteristics with respect to brain metastasis were summarized in Table 2. Neither gender nor race was associated with brain recurrence. All but one patient with brain metastasis were current/former smokers. Of all patients with brain recurrence, only one had late T (T3 or T4) stage at diagnosis. However, the association failed to be significant because of the small number of brain recurrence. Clinical N stage was significantly associated with brain metastasis (OR = 4.87, CI: 1.74–14.9). Brain recurrence in adenocarcinoma (11/87) was more frequent than in non-adenocarcinoma (6/87), although the association failed to be significant (p = 0.21). Of the genetic markers, KRAS mutation and LKB1 CN were significantly associated with brain metastasis (p = 0.007 and 0.039 respectively). Higher LKB1 expression and LKB1 wild type were also associated

with fewer brain metastases, although the result did not achieve statistical significance. Variables that were significantly associated with brain recurrence in univariate models were considered for inclusion in the multivariate model (Table 3). 154 patients had complete data for all Molecular motor the gene measurements and were included in the multivariate models. LKB1 CN and KRAS mutation were significantly associated with brain recurrence after adjusting for patient age and nodal status. Patients with higher LKB1 CN or wild type KRAS had lower risk of developing brain recurrence. The odds of brain metastasis in mutant KRAS patients were estimated to be 5.52 (CI: 1.31–22.6) times higher than the odds of brain recurrence in patients with wild type KRAS, after adjusting for age, LKB1 CN and N stage. The odds ratio of brain metastasis was ∼20 times higher in patients with one decrease in LKB1 CN values, after controlling for age, KRAS mutation and N stage.

Therefore, in the present study, we also used acetone as the extraction solvent. However, this procedure might be given to leading an overestimation of the risk because it was expected that acetone had greater extraction capacity compared to the authentic simulant which represents the migration of styrene oligomers from polystyrene into food in general use. In this context, regardless of what the genotoxicity tests result in positive or negative, we can obtain the highest doses, at which the genotoxic responses become equivalent to the spontaneous levels. Then, to avoid overemphasis

of the risk, we can compare these doses and the concentration of the styrene oligomers extracted by simulant and this comparison considering a margin of extraction amount would give us valuable insight to assess the risk of the styrene oligomers extracted from polystyrene. Compared with 50% ethanol, acetone clearly had a greater capacity to extract SDs and STs. The concentrations GDC-0068 price of SDs and STs in the test solution were 540 ppm and 13,431 ppm, respectively (total, 13,971 ppm), whereas the maximum total concentration of SDs and STs that can be extracted from polystyrene with 50% ethanol solution is 70 ppb [17]. Therefore, the total concentration of SDs and STs extracted with acetone in the test solution was approximately 200,000 times higher than that extracted this website with 50% ethanol solution. This result shows that the

capacities of Lck solvents to extract styrene oligomers from polystyrene are influenced by the polarity of each solvent. Water, which possesses the highest polarity among solvents listed in Table 5, showed the lowest capacity to extract styrene oligomers. On the other hand, regarding the pattern of compounds extracted from the polystyrene, the ratio of SDs to STs became greater when the polarity of the solvent became higher [19]. In addition, the ratio of SDs to

STs in the test solution used in the present study was not so different from that in the GPPS pellets themselves, showing that acetone extraction allowed cells to be exposed to test samples containing a sufficiently high concentration of SDs and STs in a similar ratio to that found in the original GPPS pellets. Both the Ames test and the in vitro chromosomal aberration test, which are the tests required by the FDA and EFSA for the safety evaluation of food packaging, were negative even when high concentrations of oligomers were used compared to the case of fatty-food simulant, suggesting that the risk of genotoxicity of styrene oligomers migrated from polystyrene food packaging into food is very low. Our results also provide useful data on the clastogenic and polyploidy-inducing potential of styrene oligomers. Because of the low solubility of styrene oligomers in aqueous condition, it was expected that the mixture of styrene oligomers would precipitate out of the culture medium during the in vitro chromosomal aberration test, which indeed occurred at doses of 1250 μg/mL or greater.

, 2012). The DGGE band signals were calculated by Quantity One software (Bio-Rad Laboratories Inc., Tokyo, Japan). The signal intensities and band position in each lane were divided into a spectrum of 100 variables. Principal component analysis (PCA) was run using R software and performed according to a previous report (Date et al., 2012). The first objective of this study was to develop a rapid and simple method for screening candidate prebiotic foods and their components. In order to develop the screening method, we focused on the metabolic profiles from intestinal microbiota incubated in vitro with feces. In our previous study ( Date et al., 2010), metabolic dynamics and microbial

variability from the in vitro incubation with glucose were characteristically observed, and the

substrate was completely consumed within 12 h of incubation. In addition, the metabolic dynamics Ferroptosis inhibitor from the in vitro incubation with FOS, raffinose, and stachyose (known as prebiotic foods) were characteristically varied in 1H NMR-based metabolic profiles. Therefore, we decided that 12 h after incubation was the best sampling point for evaluation and comparison of metabolic profiles generated by intestinal microbiota incubated with various substrates. The metabolic profiles check details from incubation with FOS, raffinose, stachyose, pectin from apple, kelp, wheat-bran, starch from wheat, Japanese mustard spinach, chlorella, glucan, arrowroot, starch from arrowroot, agar, carrageenan, JBO, JBOVS, onion, or control (no addition of substrate) were measured by an NMR-based metabolomics approach (Fig. S1). Plots of PCA scores for these data demonstrated that the metabolic profiles clustered to two groups (Fig. 1A). One group included the metabolic profiles from the incubation with FOS, raffinose, stachyose, JBO, JBOVS, and onion. The other metabolic profiles obtained from the incubation with pectin from apple, kelp, wheat-bran, starch from wheat, Japanese Flavopiridol (Alvocidib) mustard spinach, chlorella, glucan, arrowroot, starch from arrowroot, agar, or carrageenan were clustered with

the controls. Because the FOS, raffinose, and stachyose are well known prebiotic foods, JBO, JBOVS, and onion were potential candidate prebiotic foods. To identify the factors contributing to these clusterings, analysis of loading plots based on the 1H NMR spectra was performed to provide information on the spectral position responsible for the position of coordinates in the corresponding scores plots (Fig. 1B). The results indicated that lactate and acetate contributed to the clustering for both the ‘candidate prebiotic food group’ and the ‘control group’ because the peaks of acetate and lactate in the ‘candidate prebiotic food group’ were shifted (Fig. S1). Furthermore, the pH levels were relatively low and the lactate production levels were relatively high in the ‘candidate prebiotic food group’ compared with the ‘control group’ (Fig. 1C).

PA again revealed diffuse crackles and

wheezes in both lungs. Initial investigations showed a hemoglobin of 11,5 g/dL, white cell count of 18.2 × 109/L p38 MAPK assay (72% neutrophils, 12% lymphocytes), platelet count of 338 × 109/L and a C-reactive protein of 35 mg/L. Chest radiograph demonstrated bilateral interstitial infiltrates. He was admitted under oxygen, ampicillin, oseltamivir, prednisone and salbutamol, with a presumptive diagnosis of pneumonia. Blood culture, viral antigen detection on nasal swab and serology for atypical pneumonia were all negative. Computed tomography (CT) of the chest (Fig. 1) revealed multiple cylindrical bronchiectasis in all pulmonary lobes, associated with peribronchial condensations in the upper lobes, a pattern compatible with bilateral interstitial pneumonitis. Steroid dosage was increased and ceftriaxone added to the therapeutic regimen. There was no improvement in the following days, with severe hypoxia and sustained fever. Due to a possible

PCI-32765 research buy need of admission in an Intensive Care Unit, he was transferred to our pediatric department (tertiary care hospital). Workup at this stage revealed pan-hypogammaglobulinemia (IgG = 163 mg/dL, IgA < 6 mg/dL, IgM < 5 mg/dL). Lymphocyte subset showed normal numbers of CD4+ T cells (43,7%), CD8+ T cells (38.9%) and almost absent CD19+ B cells (0.4%). A diagnosis of CBZ hypersensitivity was suspected, and CBZ was replaced with topiramate. An infusion of 600 mg/kg of IgG was performed. A gradual clinical improvement was noted with a decrease in the respiratory rate, work of breathing and oxygen requirement. The child was discharged after 3 weeks, under a dose reduction scheme of prednisone. Six months after CBZ discontinuation, the patient had normalized quantitative immunoglobulins and improved B cell numbers. Pulmonary function tests show a restrictive pattern with a Forced Vital Capacity (FVC) of 53%, Cyclin-dependent kinase 3 and a normal FEV1/FVC

ratio. He still has decreased exercise tolerance and some limitation in performing activities of everyday life. The combination of worsening dyspnea, prolonged fever without improvement, chest CT pattern of interstitial pneumonitis and pan-hypogammaglobulinemia, along with a 2-month interval between the beginning of CBZ and the onset of symptoms, led to the presumptive diagnosis of CBZ hypersensitivity. Furthermore, a gradual resolution of symptoms and immune recovery was observed after CBZ suspension. To our knowledge, this is the first case report of a pediatric patient with both an interstitial pneumonitis and a pan-hypogammaglobulinemia in association with CBZ therapy. Although the exact mechanisms of CBZ induced hypogammaglobulinemia are unknown, absence of B cells, impairment of immunoglobulin synthesis in B cells and a disorder of the class-switch have all been implied.4 and 7 Recovery usually requires 4 months to 6 years after drug withdrawal.

Fifty-three crops are known to possess at least one of the genes investigated in this review (herbicide

AZD2281 solubility dmso tolerance via the EPSPS gene and insect resistance via the cry1Ab or cry3Bb1 genes). Forty-seven of these crops have been approved for animal and/or human consumption, yet published toxicity studies could be found for only nine of these crops (19%) ( Table 1). Of greater concern is that for eight of these crops, publications appeared after the crop had been approved for human and/or animal consumption. We understand that other studies may exist that are commercial in confidence, but these studies are not accessible to the scientific community. Other than the few studies mentioned in the EFSA reports, where histopathological results were not reported, our review of the published literature wasn’t able to identify or locate any reported safety evaluations performed on rats on these eight crops prior to their approval. Our literature review also did not identify

or locate published reports on rats for the remaining 38 crops. The present review limited the search to only include feeding studies done on rats so that Metformin molecular weight the results may be comparable. It is possible that more studies may be found if the search were to be extended to other animals. However, based on what has been found for rat studies, it is unlikely that any additional studies would involve a thorough safety investigation and a detailed report of all of the 47 approved GM crops possessing one or more of the three traits. Moreover, the rat model is the accepted OECD standard for toxicological studies of this type. Whilst the safety of a GM crop is primarily and sometimes solely evaluated by government food regulators using the test for substantial equivalence, this is likely to be inadequate to fully assess the safety

of the crop for reasons stated above. Protein tyrosine phosphatase Animal feeding studies provide a more thorough method of investigating the unintended effects of the GM process or the unintended effects of ingesting GM crop components. Animal feeding studies can identify target organs as well as predict the chronic toxic effect of an ingested compound (OECD, 2008). The evidence reviewed here demonstrates an incomplete picture regarding the toxicity (and safety) of GM crops consumed by humans and animals. The majority of studies reviewed lacked a unified approach and transparency in their methodology and results, making it impossible to properly review or repeat these studies. Furthermore, such lack of detail makes it difficult to generate evidence-based guidelines to aid in the delivery of an optimum safety assessment process for GM crops for animal and human consumption. When considering how a better risk assessment could be done, it is important to consider systems established for other novel substances that may generate unintended effects.

Mean RT and proportions of errors were submitted to an ANOVA with flanker compatibility (compatible, incompatible) and chroma (6 saturation levels) as within-subject factors. An arc-sine transformation was applied to normalize proportions before analysis

(Winer, 1971). Greenhouse–Geisser corrections were applied in case of violation of the sphericity assumption (Greenhouse & Geisser, 1959). Other specific analyses will be detailed in the text. Anticipations (responses faster than 100 ms, 0.007%) and trials in which participants failed to respond (0.03%) were discarded. There was a reliable flanker effect on RT (M = 44.5 ms), F(1, 11) = 42.4, p < .001, ηp2 = 0.79 find more (see Table 1). The main effect of chroma was also significant, F(5, 55) = 60.7, p < .001, ε = 0.41, ηp2 = 0.85. Lower chroma levels were associated with slower RT (amplitude of the effect, M = 58.9 ms). Importantly, the interaction between chroma and compatibility was not significant, F(5, 55) = 0.6, p = 0.6, ε = 0.5, ηp2 = 0.05. Error rates revealed a similar pattern. We found main effects of compatibility, F(1, 11) = 17.6, p < .005, ηp2 = 0.62, and chroma, F(5, 55) = 52.7, p < .001, ε = 0.5, ηp2 = 0.83. Error rate was higher in the incompatible condition, and increased as chroma decreased. The interaction between chroma and compatibility failed to reach significance,

F(5, 55) = 2.03, p = 0.17, ε = 0.3, ηp2 = 0.16. In order to provide some quantitative support to the plausibility of the null hypothesis of additivity, we further computed

a Bayesian ANOVA on mean RT (Rouder, Morey, Speckman, Montelukast Sodium & Province, 2012) with see more the R package Bayesfactor (Morey & Rouder, 2012). More precisely, we evaluated the ratio of the marginal likelihood of the data given model M0 (implementing additive effects between compatibility and color saturation) and given model M1 (including interactive effects between compatibility and color saturation), a ratio known as Bayes factor. The Bayes factor measures the relative change in prior to posterior odds brought about by the data: equation(1) p(M0/Data)p(M1/Data)︷posteriorodds=p(M0)p(M1)︷priorodds×p(Data/M0)p(Data/M1)︷BayesfactorThe Bayes factor for M0 over M1 was BF0,1 = 15.1 ± 0.63%, revealing that the data are 15 times more likely under the additive model M0 compared to the interactive model M1. According to a standard scale of interpretation ( Jeffreys, 1961), a Bayes factor of about 15 represents strong evidence for M0. Fig. 4 displays the best-fitting Piéron’s curve for each flanker compatibility condition along with observed mean RT. From a qualitative point of view, Piéron’s law seems to describe the data well. This impression is reinforced by very high correlation coefficients between observed and predicted data, both at the group and the individual levels (see Table 2 and Table 3).

, 2011) creates small patches of trees when individuals farming small parcels allow natural regeneration on a portion of their land. Because total farm check details size is often less than 5 ha, the wooded portion is probably too small to be classified as a forest stand under prevailing definitions. Nevertheless, in addition to providing fuelwood,

construction material, and possibly fodder, this woody patch could provide seeds for colonizing the surrounding area if farming were to be abandoned. A dispersed design was attempted in early implementation of the Wetlands Reserve Program, a government-funded program, in the southern USA (Stanturf et al., 2000 and Stanturf et al., 2001), where an objective was to enhance wildlife habitat by outplanting hard mast species. Large-seeded Quercus species are not readily dispersed so they were

outplanted on wide spacing and light-seeded species were expected to fill-in and create closed-canopy stands ( Fig. 6a). This approach was successful only where intact natural stands were nearby ( Fig. 10a), generally within 100 m ( Stanturf et al., 2001, Stanturf et al., 2009 and Nuttle and Haefner, 2005). Cluster afforestation (Schönenberger, 2001, Díaz-Rodríguez et al., 2012 and Saha et al., 2012) is similar to nucleation in that plantings are scattered on the landscape (Fig. 10d). The distinction is that clusters are small stands, as opposed to a few trees. Clusters may be comprised of simple or find more complex plantings. Corridors between intact forest stands for wildlife dispersal (Newmark, 1993, Mann and Plummer, 1995 and Kindlmann and Burel, 2008) or riparian buffer strips along waterways to reduce farm runoff (Schultz et al., 1995, Mize et al., 2008 and Bentrup et al., 2012) are examples of linear clusters (Fig. 11a and

b). Clusters may provide Etomidate seeds that can be dispersed longer distances and passively expand if surrounding land uses allow (e.g., Balandier et al., 2005). This is evident in the northeastern USA where native forests were extensively cleared for agriculture but small farm woodlots were maintained to serve farmers’ needs. When farmland was abandoned during the 1920s and 1930s, these woodlots were the nucleus for the secondary forests that developed (e.g., Raup, 1966, Moore and Witham, 1996 and Flinn et al., 2005). Rehabilitation of forest stands with intact partial or complete overstory may require some site preparation, control of competing vegetation, and/or enhancement of light conditions by removal or reduction of overstory or midstory plants (Wagner and Lundqvist, 2005). Appropriate methods depend upon light conditions and the light requirements of the species to be restored. Natural regeneration may provide sufficient plants of desirable species or assisted regeneration may be necessary. Some stands may be sufficiently opened by previous thinning or other disturbances to plant or sow mid to low shade-tolerant species without further overstory reduction (Fig. 12a).

The results indicate that extrusion cooking has great potential as an effective pretreatment for changing the quality of ginseng. The authors declare no conflicts of interest. This research was supported by the Project for Development in Technology of Agriculture, Industry,

and Commerce Fusion, which was conducted by the Small and Medium Business Administrations (Hanbit Food Ltd., Chungnam, South Korea). “
“Panax spp. occur in the northern hemisphere and mostly in temperate regions. In 1973, a wild Panax species was found at Mount Ngoc Linh in Central Vietnam. The plant was then identified as Panax vietnamensis Ha et Grushv., a new Panax species and now commonly known as Vietnamese ginseng Selleck p38 MAPK inhibitor (VG), which is the most southern Panax plant discovered so far. It has been used by the Sedang ethnic group as a miraculous herbal medicine selleck chemical for enhancement of physical strength and treatment of many diseases with similar therapeutic indications as those of Panax ginseng [1]. VG contains not only protopanaxadiol (PPD) and protopanaxatriol (PPT) saponins such as ginsenoside Rb1, Rd, Re, Rg1, but also ocotillol saponins, such as majonoside R1, R2 (in high yield), and vina-ginsenoside R1 and R2 ( Fig. 1) [1], [2], [3], [4] and [5].

Majonoside R2 constitutes >5% of the dried weight of VG [2]. In addition, ocotillol saponins, especially majonoside R2 exert remarkable pharmacological effects on the central nervous system such as antistress, antidepressive, and anxiolytic activities, which distinguishes VG from other Panax species [6], [7], [8], [9], [10] and [11]. P. ginseng,

or Korean ginseng (KG), has been regarded as an important and valuable oriental herbal medicine for thousands of years. Recently, a new type of processed ginseng, named as Sun Ginseng (SG), was reported as a steamed ginseng at higher temperature than that used for the preparation of red ginseng [12]. SG contains a high yield of less polar ginsenosides, especially Rg3, Rg5, and Rk1, which showed a stronger anticancer activity. Increased pharmacological activities including antioxidant, vasodilating, MycoClean Mycoplasma Removal Kit and antitumor promoting activities have been reported for SG [12] and [13]. These active ginsenosides could be generated from ginsenoside Rb1, Rb2, Rc, and Rd via hydrolysis, dehydration, and deglycosylation during the steaming process [14]. This study aimed to investigate the influence of different durations of steaming on the saponin composition as well as the antiproliferative and antioxidant activities of processed VG. Vietnamese ginseng (VG) was collected in Quangnam Province, Vietnam in 2010. A voucher specimen was deposited at the herbarium of College of Pharmacy, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea (SNUP-2012-A-01).