The weak form of methodological uniformitarianism might be viewed as suggesting that present process measurements check details might inform

thinking in regard to the humanly disturbed conditions of the Anthropocene. In this way G.K. Gilbert’s classical studies of the effects of 19th century mining debris on streams draining the Sierra Nevada can inform thinking (though not to generate exact “predictions”) about future effects of accelerated disturbance of streams in mountain areas by mining, which is a definite feature of the Anthropocene. This reasoning is analogical. It is not uniformitarian in the classical sense, but it is using understanding of present-day or past (for Gilbert it was both) processes to apply to what one might causally hypothesize about (not “predict”) in regard to future processes. Knight and Harrison (2014) conclude that “post-normal science” will be impacted by the Anthropocene because of nonlinear systems that will be Verteporfin solubility dmso less predictable, with increasing irrelevance for tradition systems properties such as equilibrium and equifinality. The lack of a characteristic state for these systems will prevent,

“…their easy monitoring, modeling and management. Post-normal science” is an extension of the broader theme of postmodernity, relying upon one of the many threads of that movement, specifically the social constructivist view of scientific knowledge (something of much more concern to sociologists than to working scientists). The idea of “post-normal Dolutegravir ic50 science,” as defined by Funtowicz and Ravetz (1993), relies upon the view that “normal science” consists of what was described in one of many conflicting philosophical conceptions of scientific progress, specifically that proposed by Thomas Kuhn in his influential book Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Funtowicz and Ravetz (1993) make

a rather narrow interpretation of Kuhn’s concept of “normal science”, characterizing it as “…the unexciting, indeed anti-intellectual routine puzzle solving by which science advances steadily between its conceptual revolutions.” This is most definitely one of the many interpretations of his work that would (and did!) meet with total disapproval by Kuhn himself. In contrast to this misrepresented (at least as Kuhn would see it) view of Kuhnian “normal science,” Funtowicz and Ravetz (1993) advocate a new “post-normal science” that embraces uncertainty, interactive dialog, etc. This all seems to be motivated by genuine concerns about the limitations of the conventional science/policy interface in which facts are highly uncertain, values are being disputed, and decisions are urgent (Baker, 2007). Classical uniformitarianism was developed in the early 19th century to deal with problems of interpretation as to what the complex, messy signs (evidence, traces, etc.) of Earth’s actual past are saying to the scientists (mostly geologists) that were investigating them (i.e., what the Earth is saying to geologists), e.g.

Moving to the south, we encounter the palaeochannels CL1 and CL2, described in the last section. Between the Vittorio Emanuele III Channel and the Contorta S. Angelo Channel there are a few palaeochannels meandering mainly in the west–east direction. These palaeochannels probably belong to another Holocene path of the Brenta river close to Fusina (depicted in Fig. 4. 68, p. 321, in Bondesan and Meneghel, 2004). In

the lower right hand side of the selleck screening library map, we can see the pattern of a large tidal meander that existed already in 2300 BC that is still present today under the name Fasiol Channel. Comparison with the 1691 map shows that the palaeochannels close to the S. Secondo Channel disappeared, and so did the palaeochannel CL1 (Fig. 4b). The palaeochannel CL2 is no longer present in our reconstruction, but it may still exist under the Tronchetto Island, as we observed in the last section. The acoustic areal reconstruction of CL3 overlaps well with the path of the “coa de Botenigo” from the 1691 map that was flowing into the Giudecca Channel. This channel is clearly visible also

in Fig. 4c and this website d. On the other hand, the palaeochannels close to the Fusina Channel of Fig. 4a have now disappeared. This may be related to the fact that in 1438 the Fusina mouth of the Brenta river was closed (p. 320 of Bondesan and Meneghel, 2004). To the lower right, the large meander of the Fasiol Channel is still present and one can see its ancient position and continuation. In 1811, the most relevant changes are the disappearance of the “Canal Novo de Botenigo” and of the “Canal de Burchi” (in Fig. 4c), that were immediately to the north and to the south of the Coa de Botenigo in Fig. 4b, respectively. The map in Fig. 4d has more details with small creeks developing perpendicular to the main channel. Moreover, the edification of the S. Marta area has started, so the last part of the “Coa de Botenigo”

was Galeterone rectified. Finally, the meander close to the Fasiol Channel is now directly connected to the Contorta S. Angelo Channel. In the current configuration of the channels, the morphological complexity is considerably reduced (Fig. 4e). The meanders of the palaochannel CL3 (“Coa de Botenigo”) and their ramification completely disappeared as a consequence of the dredging of the Vittorio Emanuele III Channel. The rectification of the palaochannel CL3 resulted in its rapid filling (Fig. 2d). This filling was a consequence of the higher energetic regime caused by the dredging of the new deep navigation channels in the area. The old Fusina Channel was partially filled and so it was the southern part of the Fasiol Channel meander. The creeks developing perpendicular to the main palaeochannels in 1901 (Fig. 4d) completely disappeared. A more detailed reconstruction of the different 20th century anthropogenic changes in the area can be found in Bondesan et al.

The lungs were then kept in 100% ethanol for 24 h at 4 °C (Nagase et al., 1996). After fixation, tissue blocks were embedded in paraffin and 4-μm thick slices were cut and mounted. Slides were stained with hematoxylin–eosin. Morphometric analysis was done with an integrating eyepiece with a coherent system made of a 100-point grid consisting of 50 lines,

coupled to a conventional light microscope (Axioplan, Zeiss, Oberkochen, Germany). The volume fraction of collapsed and normal pulmonary areas and the fraction of the lung occupied by large-volume gas-exchanging air spaces (wider than 120 μm) were determined by the point-counting technique (Gundersen et al., 1988 and Weibel, 1990) at a magnification of 200× across 10 this website random, non-coincident microscopic fields. Points falling on collapsed, normal or hyperinflated alveoli were counted and divided by the total number of points hitting alveoli in each microscopic field. Polymorpho- (PMN) and mononuclear (MN) cells were counted at 1000× magnification, and divided by the total number of points falling on tissue area in each microscopic field. Thus, data are reported as the fractional area of pulmonary tissue. Lung parenchyma strips (3 mm × 3 mm × 10 mm) were longitudinally cut from right lungs. Pleural tissue was removed, and the strips were stored in liquid nitrogen for analysis of type-III procollagen (PCIII)

mRNA expression. Total RNA was isolated from the

frozen lung tissue (Chomczynsky and Sacchi, 1987). The relative expression of type-III procollagen mRNA (PCIII mRNA) was Selleck Ibrutinib obtained by semi-quantitative reverse-transcription and polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). In the PCIII mRNA detection by RT-PCR, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate-dehydrogenase (GAPDH) was used as internal positive control. The semi-quantitative method Ketotifen of RT-PCR, used to quantify the PCIII mRNA expression in the experimental rat lung, was validated in preliminary experiments (Garcia et al., 2004 and Farias et al., 2005). All reactions included a negative control RT (-). The identity of the amplification was confirmed by determination of the molecular size on agarose gel electrophoresis with 100 bp DNA molecular markers (Gibco BRL, Grand Island, NY, USA). SigmaPlot 11 software package (SYSTAT, Chicago, IL, USA) was used. To evaluate the consequences of mechanical ventilation, ventilated groups were compared to Non-Vent. In order to analyze the effects of PEEP during OLV with low VT, comparisons between V5P2 and V5P5 were done, while the effects of high VT during OLV with physiological PEEP were assessed by comparisons between V5P2 and V10P2. The normality of the data (Kolmogorov–Smirnov test with Lilliefors’ correction) and the homogeneity of variances (Levene median test) were tested. When both conditions were satisfied one-way ANOVA test followed by Dunnett’s test and Student t-test were used.

, 2004, Talazoparib clinical trial Laporte, 2004, Rice et al., 2004, Rice and Rice, 2004 and Webster et al., 2004). The long-term decline of kingship as a political institution during the Late Classic Period (starting ∼AD 600–650) presaged the asynchronous disintegration of urban centers starting as early as AD 750. This culminated in widespread network failure and more rapid decline in the southern lowlands during the 9th century. Populations persisted in some interior regions into the Postclassic Period (e.g., Copan – Webster et al., 2004; Zotz – Kingsley and Cambranes, 2011 and Garrison, 2007; Petén – Laporte, 2004, Rice and Rice, 2004; some parts of the Pasion; Johnston et

al., 2001), but most of the interior portions of the southern lowlands were depopulated by ∼AD 1000–1100 (Turner and Sabloff, 2012). Population centers near the coast and along rivers were more likely to persist into the Postclassic Period (McKillop, 1989, McKillop, 2005, Sabloff, 2007 and Turner and Sabloff, 2012), but these areas were not entirely immune and wetland field agriculture went into decline at the end of the Classic Period in spite of its plentiful water resources (Luzzadder-Beach et al., 2012). There are clear linkages between military defeat and economic decline that influenced the size

and integrity of individual polities (e.g., Caracol or Tikal hiatuses; Martin and Grube, 2000). The stability of Classic Period Maya polities was therefore dependent PD-0332991 supplier upon reasonably stable and productive agricultural systems Tobramycin and the lack of widespread human suffering due to starvation or war. In turn, agricultural systems across the Maya lowlands were highly adapted to the wet and dry climatic regime and seasonal changes in rainfall linked to the position of the ITCZ and subtropical high (Haug et al., 2001). Decisions to clear, burn, and plant are dependent upon an extended dry season

followed by predictably wet conditions. Crops fail if the wet season does not start predictably or if extended droughts occur during the growing season, though crops grown in wet environments or that used water harvesting such as mulching and fan terracing may provide temporary cover. Small-scale engineering projects involving water management started in the Late Preclassic and expanded dramatically during the Classic Period (Scarborough and Burnside, 2010). These projects altered the biophysical environment to contend with the unpredictability of rainfall, provided clean water, and to extract more energy from these lowland tropical environments. A climate reconstruction for the Maya region indicates that remarkably high rainfall occurred during the Early Classic to Late Classic Periods (AD 440–660) and favored stable agricultural production along with population expansion and aggregation (Kennett et al., 2012). Populations expanded during this time and polities proliferated under these favorable conditions.

The Ex-Al3+ concentrations fluctuated from 100 mg/kg to 500 mg/kg, which increased in the summer, further increased in the autumn, and decreased the next spring (Fig. 3F–J). The Ex-Al3+ was positively correlated with NO3− (r   = 0.401, p   < 0.01, n   = 60) and negatively correlated with TOC (r   = −0.329, p   < 0.05, n   = 60). Umemura et al [27] also showed that there

were remarkable increases in NO3− and Al3+ contents in the summer season in the soil solution of a Japanese cedar forest. Ohte et al [28] also reported that the seasonal NO3− variation was Selleckchem Obeticholic Acid in agreement with that of the free Al. NO3− might be the most important factor in solubilizing Al in this study. Alp was used as a proxy for Al in organic complexes, which tended to decrease from one spring to the next (Fig. 3P–T). Alp in bed soils corresponds well with the TOC concentrations (r = 0.425, p < 0.01, n = 60; Fig. 3P–T). The stabilizing effect of soil organic matter on Al appears to be a complexation of Al in the soil solution and subsequent precipitation of insoluble Al–organic-matter complexes, which suppress microbial enzyme activity and substrate-degradation rates [29]. A positive impact of organic fertilization on American ginseng survival and growth has also been noted [30]. The decrease in the TOC concentrations in garden soils might prompt the transformation of Alp into inorganic Al, such as Ex-Al3+ ( Fig. 3P–T). Accordingly, the dissolution of Ex-Al3+

might have resulted from the following factors: (1) the pH has important implications with regards to the geochemical behavior of Al because Selleckchem GW-572016 the Al dynamics might be strongly affected by seasonality via hydrological processes; (2) NO3− was the

main anion of the Al3+ counterions and seasonal nitrate variation played a major role in controlling the dissolution of Al into the soil solution; and (3) the decrease in soil organic carbon also decreased the concentrations of organic Alp, which were transformed into Ex-Al3+. Al saturation in soils is widely used to assess the risk of Al toxicity. In this study, there was considerable variation in Al saturations, which fluctuated from 10% to 41% (Table 1). The transplanted 2-yr-old ginseng beds had the highest Al saturation. The Al saturation of most of soil samples in the summer Sirolimus ic50 and autumn was > 20% (Table 1), which was considered to be the maximum amount acceptable for the development of species sensitive to Al [31]. Al toxicity might be one of the important factors in limiting ginseng growth in the bed under a plastic cover. A 1-yr field investigation was conducted at a ginseng farm growing different aged ginseng plants in the Changbai Mountains of China. A model was proposed to describe the process of soil acidification and Ex-Al3+ dissolution (Fig. 4). The over-uptake of Ex-Ca2+ and NH4+ by ginseng roots and the nitrification process releases a large number of protons, resulting in a decreased pH.

To establish the conventional BP age of the sedimentary features, 11 organogenic samples were taken for 14C analysis

using fragments of shells of lagoonal mollusks, vegetal and peat remains (Table 1). The CEDAD laboratories at the University of Lecce, Italy, measured radiocarbon ages. The samples were analyzed using the accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) technique to determine the 14C content. The conventional 14C ages BP include the 13C/12C corrections and were calibrated using the Calib 7.0 program (Stuiver and Reimer, 1993), and the calibration data sets Intcal13 and Marine13 for terrestrial and marine samples, respectively (Reimer Neratinib datasheet et al., 2013). The regional correction (delta R) for marine reservoir effect was 316 ± 35 (Siani et al., 2000). This study used the following archive documents and historical cartography:

(a) the map of the central lagoon by Domenico Margutti of 1691, (b) the hydrographical map of the lagoon by Augusto Dénaix of ca 1810 and (c) the map of the Genio Civile di Venezia of 1901. The original historical maps are the property of the Archivio di Stato di Venezia where they can be found, but a recent collection of historical map reproductions is available in Baso et al. (2003) and D’Alpaos (2010). The map of Margutti was digitized within the Image Map Archive Gis Oriented (IMAGO) Project ( Furlanetto et al., 2009), covering an area in the central lagoon of about 160 km2. MK-1775 purchase The map of Augusto Dénaix of ca 1810 is a military topographical hydrographical map of the Venice Lagoon and its littoral between the Adige and Piave rivers. It comprises 36 tables, out of which only the ones covering the study area were used. The scale is 1:15,000. The map of the Genio Civile di Venezia M.A.V. of 1901 is a topographic and hydrographic map of the Venice Lagoon and its littoral between the Adige and Sile

rivers. It comprises 18 tables, out of which only the ones covering the 17-DMAG (Alvespimycin) HCl study area were used. The scale is 1:15,000. The description of the georeferencing procedure can be found in Furlanetto and Primon (2004). For the study area we extracted information about the hydrography by digitizing the spatial distribution of palaeochannels. The interpretation of the acoustic profiles is based on a classical seismic stratigraphic method (in terms of reflector termination and configuration) (Mitchum and Vail, 1977). Detailed analysis of acoustic profiles produced a 2D map of the sedimentary features. The initial and final coordinates of each acoustic reflector, with its description, were saved in a Geographical Information System (GIS) through the software GeoMedia®, for further mapping and interpretation (Madricardo et al., 2007, Madricardo et al., 2012 and de Souza et al., 2013). In the GIS it was possible to correlate the acoustic reflectors and to draw the areal extent of each sedimentary feature.

Just as with axon specification and neuron migration, granule neurons of the rodent cerebellar cortex provide a robust model system

for the study of dendrite development including their distinct stages of growth, pruning, and postsynaptic maturation (Figure 1). In recent years, a number of transcription factors have been discovered to regulate distinct stages of dendrite development in granule neurons. As part of the process of establishing neuronal polarity, the FOXO transcription factors, and in particular the brain-enriched protein FOXO6, inhibit the growth of dendrites while simultaneously promoting the growth of axons (de la Torre-Ubieta et al., Buparlisib price 2010). Thus, even as neurons migrate and their axons grow, transcriptional mechanisms are at play to inhibit the formation of dendrites. In this capacity, the FOXO proteins may inhibit a cell-intrinsic switch from axon to dendrite growth in the brain. The bHLH protein NeuroD plays a critical role in the initiation of dendrite growth as well as the branching of granule neuron dendrite arbors in the cerebellar cortex (Gaudillière et al., 2004). While NeuroD promotes the initiation of dendrite growth and elaboration,

the zinc-finger transcription factor Sp4 promotes the pruning of the granule neuron dendrite arbor (Ramos et al., 2007 and Ramos et al., 2009), and the MADS domain transcription CHIR-99021 factor MEF2A triggers the morphogenesis of the postsynaptic dendritic claws (Shalizi et al., 2006 and Shalizi et al., 2007). Collectively, these studies support the concept that different transcription factors are dedicated to distinct aspects of dendrite development (Figure 1). Whether and how these transcription factors might regulate each other in the control of dendrite morphogenesis is an unanswered question. An interesting feature of the role of transcription factors in the regulation of dendrite development is that they are robustly influenced by calcium signaling and consequently neuronal activity (Figure 4). Membrane depolarization Methocarbamol is critical for the development of dendrite growth and branching, including in granule neurons

of the cerebellar cortex (Gaudillière et al., 2004 and Okazawa et al., 2009). Calcium influx via L-type calcium channels triggers the activation of the protein kinase CaMKIIα (Hudmon and Schulman, 2002 and Wayman et al., 2008b). Once activated, CaMKIIα induces the phosphorylation of NeuroD at Serine 336 (Gaudillière et al., 2004). Structure-function analyses of NeuroD in the background of NeuroD RNAi indicate that the CaMKIIα-induced phosphorylation of NeuroD, including at Serine 336, is essential for the ability of NeuroD to mediate membrane depolarization-dependent dendrite growth (Gaudillière et al., 2004). How the CaMKIIα-induced phosphorylation activates the transcriptional function of NeuroD remains to be determined.

2 s, followed by a cross-hair for 3 s. Ten such trials were presented in each block and a single run consisted of two blocks each of the Motion and Static stimuli. Pediatric participants underwent a training session in a mock scanner prior to the experiment to familiarize them with the MRI environment and all subjects practiced the tasks prior to the scan. Data were acquired using a 3T Siemens Trio scanner located in the Center for Functional and Molecular Imaging at the Georgetown University Medical Center,

Washington, DC. For each run, 89 functional images consisting selleck chemicals of 50 contiguous whole-brain axial slices were acquired using an echo-planar imaging (EPI) sequence and the following parameters: TR = 3 s, TE = 30 ms, flip angle = 90°, FOV = 192 mm, slice thickness = 2.8 mm (0.2 mm interslice gap), in-plane resolution = 64 × 64, and voxel size = 3 mm isotropic. SPM8 was

used in analysis of functional MRI data sets. The first five scans of each run were discarded to account for T1 saturation effects. Resulting data sets were realigned to the mean of the remaining images, normalized to the Montreal Neurological Institute EPI template, resampled to an isotropic voxel size of 2 mm3, and smoothed with a Gaussian kernel of 8 mm full-width at half-maximum. Statistical analysis was performed based on the general linear model. Functional data sets were high-pass filtered with a cut-off of 128 s to account for signal drift and corrected AZD2281 mw for autocorrelations using an AR(1)

model. Stimulus onsets were modeled using the SPM canonical hemodynamic response function, and within-subject parametric maps were created for the motion-specific contrast (Motion > Static). Area V5/MT was functionally identified via its responsivity to the visual motion stimulus. In Experiment 1, V5/MT was identified individually in each subject via the contrast of Motion versus Static. For this single-subject analysis, Amine dehydrogenase we searched for clusters within Talairach coordinates bounded by previously defined anatomical volumes: x = lateral to ±35; y = posterior to −60; z = −9 to +13 (Dumoulin et al., 2000; Tootell et al., 1995; Watson et al., 1993). To avoid circularity, we performed this identification of V5/MT using half the data acquired, while the other half was utilized in percent signal change calculation. Allocation of task blocks for this split between the two halves of the run was randomized across subjects. Data from Experiment 1 were also used to determine the ROI used in Experiments 2 and 3, however, this time using a different analysis, since Experiment 1 involved a different group of subjects than those participating in Experiments 2 and 3. An independent ROI was identified via a second level random-effects whole-brain analysis (no anatomical boundaries or masks were used here) performed using a one-sample t test to combine activation for the motion specific contrast over all the subjects in Experiment 1.

The functional defects described above were observed as early as P16-20, CHIR-99021 mw the age window when nerve terminal degeneration is likely to begin in CSPα KO mice, suggesting that the functional

defects may not be secondary to nerve terminal degeneration. In summary, Rozas et al. (2012) and Zhang et al. (2012) have discovered a regulatory role of CSPα in dynamin 1-mediated synaptic vesicle endocytosis and recycling (Figure 1). Their findings advance our understanding of the molecular mechanisms regulating synaptic transmission and may shed light on the study of synapse loss during neurodegeneration. As a new member involved in regulating endocytosis, CSPα binds directly to dynamin 1 and facilitates dynamin 1 polymerization, a conformation critical in mediating vesicle fission (Figure 1). This mechanism may not only explain the endocytosis defect in CSPα KO mice but also contribute to the observed defects Docetaxel mouse in exocytosis. Recent studies have shown that blocking endocytosis inhibits vesicle mobilization to the readily releasable pool, likely via inhibition of the clearance of the recently exocytosed proteins from the release site (Wu et al., 2009 and Hosoi et al., 2009). Consequently, defects in vesicle priming observed in CSPα KO mice may be due to the endocytosis defect (Figure 1). Like many pioneering studies, the studies by Rozas et al.

(2012) and Zhang et al. (2012) raise many important questions and unsettled issues. For example, we do not know how CSPα facilitates dynamin 1 polymerization. The form of endocytosis regulated by CSPα also remains unclear, considering that there are at least three forms of endocytosis: the classical clathrin-dependent slow endocytosis, rapid, clathrin-independent endocytosis, and bulk endocytosis that generates large endosome-like structures (Wu et al., 2007). Although impaired dynamin 1 polymerization seems the obvious cause of inhibition in endocytosis, whether it is also

responsible for the decrease in the recycling pool and the difficulty in rereleasing recently endocytosed vesicles in CSPα KO mice is unclear. The evidence supporting a defect in vesicle priming in CSPα KO mice is indirect. Direct evidence showing a decrease in the docked vesicle number, the readily releasable vesicle pool Isotretinoin size, and/or the rate of vesicle mobilization to the readily releasable pool awaits further study. It also remains untested whether the defects in dynamin 1 polymerization and vesicle recycling cause synapse loss. This possibility has been challenged by a recent study showing that SNAP-25 overexpression is sufficient to rescue synapse loss and degeneration in cultured neurons derived from CSPα KO mice (Sharma et al., 2011a). In addition to SNAP-25 and dynamin 1, there are around 20 other proteins that are reduced in CSPα KO mice (Zhang et al., 2012).

The predominance CDK inhibitor of cells concerned with slow movement time scales is in line with an earlier recording study, which also showed that cells did not covary 1:1 with the whisking rhythm and that cells would globally turn off and on with whisking (Carvell et al., 1996). Hill et al. (2011) also show that motor cortical neurons accurately predict whisker movements. Most interestingly,

this covariation of motor cortical activity and whisker movements persist after removal of sensory feedback, implying that it reflects efferent control rather than afferent modulation. This finding differs from data in somatosensory cortex, where the removal of sensory feedback disrupts the comodulation of activity and whisking (Fee et al., 1997). This result is of great significance, because it presents one of the clearest dissociations of vibrissae motor and somatosensory cortical activity in sensorimotor integration discovered so far. The modulation of neural activity associated Selleck Veliparib with whisking is fairly weak. Overall there is only a temporal redistribution of neural activity during whisking and no net firing rate increase during whisking! Does such weak modulation argue against a motor role of these neurons? Almost certainly not. In most mammalian motor cortices the activity during spontaneous behaviors is rather modest. The situation changes

when tasks become complicated or when animals are trained on certain movements. One might guess that for most of the day motor cortex is not in the driver’s seat, and instead acts like a mastermind of complicated, unusual, or very significant movements. As for the lesions to the motor cortical forelimb representation performed by Fritsch and Hitzig, damage to vibrissa motor cortex does not fully abolish whisker movements. The persistence of whisking after cortical ablation suggested early on the existence of a brain stem pattern generator for whisking. Lesions to vibrissa motor cortex do affect the amplitude distribution of whisker movements, a result much in line with the current results from Hill et al. (2011). The characteristics

of stimulation-evoked secondly movements in vibrissa motor cortex strongly depend on methodology of stimulation and the identity of the stimulated neurons (Brecht et al., 2006). Stimulation of pyramidal neurons and interneurons evokes movements of opposite directions. While movements evoked by brief trains of extracellular stimulation pulses are brief and restricted to few whiskers, movement fields observed with single-cell stimulation are large and single-cell-evoked movements persist for seconds (Brecht et al., 2004b). Single-cell stimulation effects are in line with the conclusion of Hill et al. (2011) that vibrissa motor cortex controls movements on long timescales. Vibrissa motor cortex distributes output to a wide variety of subcortical targets. Inputs to vibrissa motor cortex arrive from a wide variety of brain regions in an intricate extremely orderly laminar pattern.