This result suggests an important contribution of muskelin in balancing GABAergic signaling that is relevant for the precise coordination of neuronal network mechanisms during high-frequency ripples. Because muskelin colocalized with GABAAR α1 and in close proximity to synapses (Figure 1) we asked whether the observed oscillation Roxadustat concentration phenotype was due to GABAAR changes at the cellular level. A surface membrane-enriched (SE) brain fraction revealed an approximately 44% increase in GABAAR α1 signal intensities in the muskelin-deficient (−/−) background, as compared to wild-type (+/+) controls (Figures 3A and 3B). A similar increase in receptor cell surface levels was observed by live-cell

immunostaining of cultured hippocampal neurons. In muskelin-deficient cells, GABAAR α1 signals displayed significantly higher signal intensities and covered larger cell surface areas (Figures 3C and selleck screening library 3D), whereas GABAAR α2 or β2/3 signals only showed marginal alteration between the genotypes (see Figures S1C–S1F). Notably, in addition to muskelin depletion, competitive overexpression of red fluorescent muskelin fusion protein (mRFP-muskelin)

aa 90–200 harboring the GABAAR α1-binding motif (Figure 1B) also caused increased GABAAR α1 cell surface levels in HEK293 cells (Figures 3E and 3F). Thus, the critical role of muskelin in regulating GABAAR α1 cell surface levels is mediated through the direct binding of both proteins and can be mimicked in a nonneuronal system. Analysis of miniature inhibitory postsynaptic currents (mIPSCs) in cultured neurons (data not shown) or acute hippocampal slices (Figures 3G–3J) revealed significant, however marginal differences in amplitudes, whereas mIPSC frequencies were unaltered. Further decay time constants were significantly slower in KO versus wild-type controls. Therefore, GABAAR α1 receptor levels at synapses are only

slightly altered with no major presynaptic contribution. This prompted us to quantify GABAAR α1 signal intensities and areas after coimmunostaining with presynaptic SV2 (Figures 3K–3M). Consistent with our mIPSC analysis, synaptic GABAAR α1 levels (Figure 3K, click here yellow puncta) displayed only minor differences between wild-type (+/+) and muskelin KO (−/−) cells (Figure 3L), whereas extrasynaptic receptor levels (Figure 3K, green puncta in merged image) were strongly increased through muskelin deficiency (Figure 3M). Accordingly, muskelin signals were found at extrasynaptic putative coated pits by EM (Figure 3N), pointing to a role of muskelin in receptor internalization. These observations in neurons derived from muskelin KOs were not due to changes in presynaptic terminals (Figure 3O), excitatory and inhibitory synapse numbers (Figures 3P and 3Q), or altered synaptic clustering (Figures S1G and S1H). Thus, the previously observed increase in surface receptor levels (Figures 3A–3D) mainly represents extrasynaptic GABAAR accumulations.