It is likely that the low responder numbers at the lowest dose was a function of dose rather than MHC class II allele distribution. Alexander et al. described a de novo designed non-natural pan-DR epitope peptide (PADRE) that binds promiscuously to common HLA-DR alleles [2]. The PADRE peptide has been tested in a number of clinical trials. BCR-ABL peptides linked to PADRE and co-administered with GM-CSF to patients with chronic myeloid leukemia elicited a PADRE-specific recall response in 14 of 14 subjects tested [31]. selleck PADRE peptide admixed with MAGE3 peptide in incomplete Freunds adjuvant administered

to melanoma patients elicited detectable but low levels of PADRE-reactive effector cells in 7 of 9 subjects [32]. PADRE peptide and WT-1, Muc-1, and proteinase-3 CTL epitopes admixed with CpG oligonucleotides in montanide and administered to patients with acute myeloid leukemia

and multiple myeloma induced an increase in PADRE-reactive effector T cells in all subjects, although these T cells showed an apparent defect in IL-2 secretion [33]. In contrast, a DNA vaccine encoding 21 HIV-specific CTL epitopes and PADRE was tested in 42 healthy volunteers and elicited only one positive recall response to PADRE as measured by ELISpot [34]. Finally, autologous dendritc cells pulsed with the PADRE elicited an ex vivo recall response to PADRE in 10 of 18 subjects in one study [35] and low level Gemcitabine nmr responses in another study [36]. Not surprisingly, the efficacy and universality of the PADRE peptide may be dependent Astemizole upon the context in which the peptide is administered, such as dose, regimen, route, adjuvant, and form (free peptide, linked peptide, DNA-encoded, or pulsed DCs). One of the potential advantages of using a universal T cell helper peptide based on TT and DT is that pre-existing CD4 T cell memory to TpD from prior immunization with DT and TT may confer an advantage for a TpD-containing nanoparticle vaccine by generating a larger pool of antigen-specific T cells that

can provide faster and more efficient help to B cells in a secondary challenge [37], [38] and [39]. In addition CD4 memory T cells have several functional characteristics that facilitate a more robust response to antigen. For example, CD4 memory T cells have a lower threshold for activation by antigen than naïve cells and show polarized differentiation to specific T cell subsets (e.g. Th1, Th2, Th17, and T follicular helper (Tfh) subsets), and multi-cytokine expression (e.g., TNF-α, IL-2 and IFN-γ) [40]. In particular, CXCR5 expressing memory CD4 cells have been found to provide accelerated help to B cells, perhaps due to their ability to localize to B cell follicles [41]. Overall the data suggests that the existence of CD4 memory T cells will be beneficial in producing a more rapid and robust induction of antibody production. As a result there may be an advantage in targeting memory T cell activation to enhance a response in vaccines.