Homologous systems were identified in the genomes of distinct taxonomic groups of Bacteria and Archaea, which provides

evidence that horizontal gene transfer has contributed to the wide dissemination of R-M modules – even between domains. Analysis of the cleavage specificity of the R.PamI endonuclease revealed that this protein is an isoschizomer of restriction enzyme NcoI. Interestingly, bioinformatic analyses suggest that R.PamI and NcoI are accompanied by methyltransferases of different methylation specificities (C5-methylcytosine and N4-methylcytosine methyltransferases, respectively), which possibly exemplifies recombinational shuffling of genes coding for individual components of R-M systems. The PamI system can stabilize plasmid pAMI7 in a bacterial population, most probably at the postsegregational level. Therefore, it functions in an analogous manner to plasmid-encoded Selleckchem Tofacitinib toxin-antitoxin (TA) systems. Since the TA system

of pAMI7 is nonfunctional, it is highly Veliparib chemical structure probable that this lack is compensated by the stabilizing activity of PamI. This indicates the crucial role of the analyzed R-M system in the stable maintenance of pAMI7, which is, to our knowledge, the first report of ‘symbiosis’ between a R-M system and a plasmid in the Alphaproteobacteria. Restriction-modification (R-M) systems are exclusive to unicellular organisms and are ubiquitous in the bacterial world. These systems encode (1) a restriction endonuclease (REase), which recognizes a specific DNA sequence and introduces a double-strand break, and (2) a cognate DNA methyltransferase (MTase) that transfers the methyl group from S-adenosyl-l-methionine

(AdoMet) onto specific nucleobases within the same target, thereby protecting it from cleavage. Methylation of DNA occurs either at adenine or cytosine, yielding N6-methyladenine (m6A), N4-methylcytosine (m4C) or C5-methylcytosine (m5C). The m4C and m6A DNA MTases, which modify exocyclic NH2 groups, Florfenicol are grouped together as N-MTases (Tock & Dryden, 2005). Based on their genetic and biochemical characteristics, R-M systems have been classified into four types (I–IV) (Roberts et al., 2003). The vast majority (more than 3800) of the systems belong to type II, which comprises two-gene genetic modules encoding separate proteins: MTase and REase. Both enzymes recognize a specific short nucleotide sequence (commonly a palindrome) and the REase cleaves double-stranded DNA at specific sites within or adjacent to these sequences (Roberts et al., 2003). It is widely believed that the R-M modules act as ‘a natural bacterial immune system’ which discriminates ‘self ’ (methylated) DNA from ‘foreign’ (not protected by methylation) DNA acquired by horizontal gene transfer. These systems are therefore efficient tools for defense against infection by viral, plasmid, and other exogenous DNA (Tock & Dryden, 2005).