2A) and with plasma leptin levels (Fig. 2B). These data suggest that susceptibility to metabolic disorders may indeed be mediated by the presence or absence of a match between prenatal and postnatal environments. Pazopanib clinical trial When the postnatal environment matches the prenatal environment, adaptations to the phenotype of the offspring to match the prenatal environmental conditions are beneficial. However, when the postnatal environment is mismatched compared to the prenatal environment these adaptation may become maladaptive, and lead to pathology development. Like in the case of passively-coping PNS rats where adaptations to reserve energy in preparation for stressful environmental

conditions lead to increased risk to obesity and insulin resistance when the rats are postnatally exposed to conditions of energy abundance. Increased maternal glucocorticoid levels have been suggested to be causal to the prenatal stress phenotype. In mice, for example, chronic stress exposure during pregnancy increases levels of circulating glucocorticoids in the dam and in the amniotic fluid (Abdul Aziz et al., 2012 and Misdrahi

et al., 2005). Data derived from Dinaciclib studies using exogenous glucocorticoid administration during gestation, show that heightened maternal glucocorticoids may indeed induce alterations in HPA-axis functioning in offspring similar to those observed in PNS rats (reviewed in (Drake et al., 2007)). Furthermore, offspring of dams treated with dexamethasone, a synthetic glucocorticoid, during pregnancy had increased weight gain on a high fat diet and impaired insulin signaling (O’Brien et al., 2008), suggesting

that glucocorticoid exposure during pregnancy may indeed induce increased risk to metabolic disruptions in PNS offspring. Heightened glucocorticoid exposure in the fetal brain, could affect brain development through several glucocorticoid response elements found on genes important for brain development (Polman et al., 2013). PNS is associated with increased corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH first or Crh) in the paraventricular nucleus and central nucleus of the amygdala ( Welberg et al., 2005). Data on the glucocorticoid (GR or Nr3c1) and mineralocorticoid (MR or Nr3c2) receptors indicate decreased maximal binding capacity of both GR and MR in the hippocampus ( Koehl et al., 1999, Henry et al., 1994 and Maccari et al., 1995). Additionally, prenatal dexamethasone treatment increases Nr3c1 expression in liver and adipose tissue, and this has been associated with increased phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PEPCK or Pck1) expression in liver, important for the regulation of gluconeogenesis ( Nyirenda et al., 1998). PNS may not only alter glucocorticoid levels through GR and MR directly, but may also influence sensitivity of these receptors. Prenatal stress has been shown to reduce negative feedback of the GR in the offspring leading to higher circulating levels of corticosterone ( Weinstock, 1997).