Die deutlichsten Hinweise auf ein hohes Krebsrisiko ergaben sich jedoch für sulfidisches Nickel im Staub von Nickelraffinerien [42]. Im Gegensatz dazu gab es laut ICNCM-Bericht bei Arbeitern im Nickelbergbau keine statistischen Belege für einen Zusammenhang zwischen Lungenkrebs und Nickel. Eine Erklärung dafür ist,

dass das vorherrschende Mineral in sulfidischen Nickelerzen Pentlandit [(Ni,Fe]9S8] ist, das sich stark von den sulfidischen Nickelspezies unterscheidet, die bei der Raffination eine Rolle spielen (NiS, NiS2 und Ni2S3). Bei Tierversuchen hat sich Pentlandit nicht als karzinogen gezeigt [45]. Die Tatsache, dass inhalierte, weniger lösliche sulfidische und oxidische Spezies stärker karzinogen wirken als lösliche Nickelspezies, lässt sich durch zelluläre Aufnahme und molekulare GSI-IX purchase Mechanismen erklären. Lösliche Nickelpartikel lösen sich im Schleim und die Nickelionen werden durch ciliären Transport rasch entfernt. Im Gegensatz dazu gelangen weniger lösliche Nickelpartikel durch Phagozytose [46] in die Epithelzellen der Lunge, wo sie sich langsam auflösen und eine kontinuierliche Quelle für Nickelionen darstellen [47]. Die molekularen Ursachen der nickelbedingten Karzinogenese buy GSK126 sind noch nicht vollständig aufgeklärt, es wird jedoch angenommen, dass eine Reihe von Mechanismen für die Krebsentstehung

verantwortlich ist. Die tatsächliche karzinogene Spezies ist vermutlich ionisches Nickel (Ni2+), da dieses an zelluläre Komponenten wie z. B. nukleäre Proteine und DNA binden kann [48]. Zwar ist die Bindung von Nickelionen an die DNA schwach, jedoch binden sie an nukleäre Proteine (Chromatinproteine) wie Histone und Protamine mit

hoher Affinität [49], [50] and [51]. Nickelkomplexe mit over Heterochromatin führen zu vielfältigen Veränderungen wie Kondensation, DNA-Hypermethylierung und Gen-Silencing, die die Genexpression stören [49], [50] and [51]. Darüber hinaus gibt es Hinweise darauf, dass Nickelionen Enzyme inhibieren, die für die DNA-Reparatur erforderlich sind und so die genotoxischen Effekte von UV- und Röntgenstrahlen verstärken [52]. Bei längerem, weniger dagegen bei kürzerem Hautkontakt, können metallisches Nickel und Nickelsalze durch Schweiß gelöst werden. Dies kann zur Bildung von Nickelionen und anschließend zu deren Resorption über die Haut führen. Dieser Prozess wird im Wesentlichen durch die Diffusionsrate des Nickels durch die Hornschicht der Epidermis bestimmt, die durch viele Faktoren wie z. B. Schweiß, Lösungsmittel und Detergenzien gesteigert werden kann [53], [54] and [55]. Außerdem können Nickelionen die Haut bei Schweißdrüsen und Haarfollikeln leichter durchdringen, doch deren Fläche ist klein. In frühen Experimenten mit radioaktivem Nickelsulfat wurde innerhalb von 24 h eine 55-77%ige Resorption des Nickels durch die Haut beobachtet. Die Resorption erfolgte bei normalen und nickelsensibilisierten Personen ähnlich [56].

Vallee, whilst looking for zinc proteins

and also searching for a function for cadmium, uncovered a protein apparently for cadmium detoxification, cadmium metallothionein, in the kidney of horses [19]. A striking feature of the protein was the large numbers of cysteine residues in its sequence strongly indicative of cadmium thiolate binding. Another feature was the stoichiometry which appeared to be between four and five cadmium atoms per protein depending on the method of purification. The immediate suggestion was that one cadmium was more weakly bound. The more recent extensive work on the properties of the zinc form of this protein by his pupils, Kaegi [20] and Maret [21] and the copper proteins by Weser [22] have shown that there was similar weakish binding

of one metal ion. selleck kinase inhibitor The binding constants of the weakly bound zinc to these buffer proteins are about 109 M− 1[21] and [23]. Before going into my own interests in zinc biochemistry, I would like to add a few personal memories and anecdotes about Bert Vallee. For fifteen years from 1955 to 1970, including a sabbatical year, 1965/1966, I worked with Vallee, mostly by long-distance exchange and enjoyed his company. The long sabbatical visit gave rise to our thoughts on the entatic state published in 1968. He was a highly intelligent and cultured man, sensibly taking relaxation in good food and horse riding. The beginning of his career as an analyst in mass spectrometry and flame photometry was broken by the death Ibrutinib of his professor at MIT. Vallee was left as a science orphan with a research interested

not shared by any in MIT or Harvard. How he came to have a laboratory in a Harvard hospital basement I do not know but he had to refurbish and re-equip it with little assistance. A darker side of his character was surely reinforced by this experience. As I knew him he was suspicious of the motives of others, even in 1955, as I have explained in my own case in the introduction. PRKACG He was not without friends however and I remember having lunch with Bert and one of them, Professor Eric Ball. The lunch was particularly memorable for a remark made by Eric who had listened kindly to our two very different ways of hoping to develop bioinorganic chemistry. He said, “If you two stick together you will be unstoppable.” We tried but in the end we failed — I think for a simple reason. If you worked with Bert, no matter at what level, he demanded or asked for loyalty and that we all remained secretive about our work. A great disappointment for me was that this threw a shadow over his work in the eyes of the biochemistry community. For example Bert refused to have anything to do with Lipscomb, whom I knew well, who had the crystal structure of carboxypeptidase, “Bert’s” enzyme in his own eyes. Away from his science Bert was warm, open, enjoyed witty conversation and was not afraid of jokes against himself.

They must be obtained from experiments – the instructions for undertaking these titrations are given in Appendix A. Seawater samples

were taken from the River Thames and Brighton Marina. The 100 ml samples of river/seawater were acidified with 4 ml of 1 mol/l nitric acid (HNO3) resulting in pH = 3.27 for Thames water and pH = 3.45 for Brighton Marina. For low dilution factors, the dependence of pH this website on dilution is similar for both samples (see Fig. 5a and b) because the molarity of the acid is much stronger than the alkalinity; in this instance the initial pH increase is largely due to dilution with the pH recovering by slightly more than 1 unit when D=10D=10. From www.selleckchem.com/products/epz015666.html these curves we can determine the total dilution required to bring the discharge to a pH = 6.5. In this example, Brighton seawater has an alkalinity of 770 μmol/l and River Thames

water has an alkalinity of 480 μmol/l. The former is typical for the low alkalinity waters in the Baltic seas (see Fig. 2b). These titration experiments were done over a period of 15 min, with less than a minute for each step; much faster than a number of published studies (Behrends et al., 2005). This is to mimic more closely the processes that occur within the jet – the travel time of the acidic jet fluid from the nozzle to a distance of 4 m is typically <10 s. We examine the engineering constraints on DjetDjet and chemistry constraints on DTDT to achieve the necessary pH recovery. The design of the port discharge hole may be optimised to ensure pH = 6.5 at 4 m, for a single circular discharge port. An example discharge of pH = 3.5 is used, which was obtained from mixing seawater and a monoprotic acid with molarity 0.0385 mol/l. Extension to other values of discharge pH and

seawaters is straightforward. To enable large volumes to be discharged multiple ports may be required and the number can be estimated to be equation(23) N=QsDT24πu0α2×2.From (11), the jet nozzle radius that ensures a dilution DTDT, is equation(24) b0=2αxDT.Fig. 6 shows how the number and size of the discharge ports is selected. We consider the examples of 5, 10 and 15 MW ships (where Qs=45t/hr per MW of power) which are L-NAME HCl in waters with a low alkalinity of 1500 μmol l−1. This alkalinity is typical for the main shipping routes in the Baltic Sea (Fig. 2b). The alkalinity determines the total dilution required which is DT=19.25DT=19.25 (obtained from Fig. 6a from the solid red line) and this sizes the discharge port radius which is 0.033 m from (24). We have chosen u0=2m/s which is a conservative estimate of the discharge speed. The number of ports is shown in Fig. 6c. The result is that for the 5, 10 and 15 MW ships 9, 18 and 27 outlet nozzles are required. Fig.

The groundwater is highly undersaturated with respect to As (e.g. arsenolite), Mn oxide phases (e.g. birnessite, bixbyite, hausmannite, manganite, nsutite and pyrolusite) and sulfate phase (e.g. gypsum), indicating that aqueous As, Mn and S are unlikely to precipitate as these mineral phases (Mukherjee and Fryar, 2008). A minority of groundwater samples (15/73 or 21%) were highly to moderately supersaturated with respect to Fe(III) (oxyhdr) oxide phases like ferrihydrite, hematite, Bortezomib price lepidocrocite, goethite, maghemite, and Mg-Ferrite. This means those minerals might be present in the aquifer at those locations. Groundwater and river water is near equilibrium with respect to slightly

undersaturated with respect to fluoride CB-839 ic50 phase (e.g. fluorite). Groundwater is mostly saturated with respect to siderite (Fig. 10a) and also near equilibrium or undersaturated with respect to other Fe(II) minerals like melanterite and greenalite, as well as carbonate phases (e.g. aragonite, calcite, dolomite). There is a negative correlation between AsTot and rhodocrosite (Fig. 10b). The groundwater chemistry is predominately moderately reducing and suboxic with circum-neutral

pH and high concentrations of Ca2+ and HCO3−. High concentrations of Ca2+ and HCO3− is a common feature in South and Southeast Asia floodplain aquifers (Berg, 2001, Bhattacharya, 2002, Bhattacharya et al., 2002, Buschmann et al., 2007, Mukherjee et al., 2012, Mukherjee and Fryar, 2008 and Postma et al., 2007) and highlights the important role of carbonate dissolution and generation of bicarbonate in the hydrochemical evolution of groundwater facies and subsequent trace metal mobilization nearly (Mukherjee et al., 2008). Similar hydrochemical facies have also been observed in deeper aquifer samples (>150 m) from the highly As contaminated region in the Bhagirathi sub-basin, Bangladesh (Mukherjee et al., 2008). Concentrations of HCO3− are higher than expected based on the stoichiometry

of calcium carbonate weathering, suggesting that HCO3− is being generated from other processes in addition to carbonate dissolution (i.e. silicate weathering or organic matter mineralization), or that some Ca2+ is being lost in either cation exchange reactions or precipitation of Ca-bearing minerals (e.g. Sharif et al., 2008). Groundwater is mostly saturated with respect to carbonate phases such as calcite and dolomite, further suggesting that carbonate dissolution alone does not contribute to the high bicarbonate in the aquifer of Nawalparasi. Our data clearly indicate that silicate weathering is also contributing to the major ion solute composition of the groundwater. Bicarbonate can also be derived by weathering of primary silicate minerals such as Ca- or Na-feldspar, as represented the following equations (Eqs. (1) and (2)).

For N. floridana, important information about fungal structures, especially the formation of azygospores, still remains to be fully Selleckchem SGI-1776 confirmed. According to Keller, 1991, Keller, 1997 and Keller and Petrini, 2005Neozygites resting spores are dark brown to black, spherical or ellipsoid, smooth or ornamented and binucleate, while resting spores of many other Entomophthoromycota are multinucleate ( Keller and Petrini,

2005). Keller, 1997 and Keller, 2007 further suggests that a zygospore is developed by budding from a conjugation bridge after a conjugation of two hyphal bodies ( Fig. 1). During the early development of the young zygospore it receives one nucleus from each hyphal body ( Keller, 1997 and Humber, 1989). Subsequently a thick wall is formed and the substantially emptied walls of the hyphal bodies with the remaining nuclei collapse and disintegrate ( Keller, 1997 and Keller, 2007). Further, Keller (1991) suggests that all species in the genus Neozygites form zygospores only, while in most other genera in the Entomophthoromycota

zygospore and azygospore formation occurs. Weiser (1968), however, reported azygospore formation by Triplosporium tetranychi sp. n. (Phycomycetes, Entomophthoraceae), a species close to N. floridana ( Bałazy, 1993), in its host Tetranychus althaeae (syn. Tetranychus urticae (Acari: Tetranychidae)) but Keller, 1997 and Keller, 2007 suggested PFT�� order that this finding needs confirmation. Further, Nemoto and Aoki (1975) report observations of

Entomophthora floridana (syn. N. floridana) azygospores in the host Oligonychus hondoensis (Acari: Tetranychidae), and Ishikawa (2010) reports of formation of azygospores of Neozygites sp. in the host Tetranychus kanzawai (Acari: Tetranychidae). In this paper we describe and confirm the formation of azygospores and zygospores by N. floridana in the host T. urticae in strains from Brazil and Norway. To http://www.selleck.co.jp/products/Paclitaxel(Taxol).html investigate the possible formation of azygo- and zygospores, preserved slides of T. urticae infected with N. floridana of a Brazilian strain (ESALQ 1420) and a Norwegian strain (NCRI 271/04) were obtained from a laboratory experiment on induction of resting spore formation at 11 °C and 15 °C ( Duarte et al., 2013). Further, 15 preserved slides containing cadavers with resting spores collected from different locations in Norwegian strawberry fields (Lier in Buskerud (59°47′N, 10°16′E) and Kise in Hedmark (60°46′N, 10°48′E) were used in this study. A total of 229 Norwegian and 209 Brazilian slides were observed for resting spores. Out of these, only 17 Brazilian and 18 Norwegian slides where further studied to observe for zygo- or azogospore formation. Obtained slides with T. urticae infected with N. floridana had been squash-mounted in 0.

Once all the surfaces are generated, the creation of each stratigraphic unit included in the 3D volumetric model commenced. Each model layer is constrained by its formation top surface and the top of the underlying unit. Even though the main structures were constrained using seismic surfaces, a more detailed structural fault-block modelling was not carried out during this study. Some cross sections were constructed intersecting faults nearly perpendicular to where the largest fault displacement was observed in the seismic surfaces in each regional fault. From these cross sections a comparison of aquifers/aquitards was made on both

sides of the faults, calculating the percentage of permeable units interfacing either permeable or impermeable units on the opposite side of the faults. This is a simple approach to assess the hydraulic character of faults. The 3D geological model of the Galilee PF-562271 molecular weight Basin and the central part of the Eromanga Basin was developed to assess the overall aquifer/aquitard geometry and the importance of structural features within CX-5461 mw the study area. A series of 23 cross sections was produced, and four of these (CS 04, CS 19, CS 20 and CS 23) are selected to highlight some key results of the model (Fig. 4), notably the thickness of the various formations, and their stratigraphic and geometric relationships relative to each other, particularly

where they are adjacent to faults. Cross Section 04 (Fig. 4a) shows the displacement of the Eromanga Basin units along the Hulton-Rand Structure and the abutment of the Galilee Basin against the same structure. Cross Section 19 (Fig. 4b)

shows a similar scenario to Cross Section 04 for the Tara Structure instead of the Hulton-Rand Structure, but also highlights the displacement Methocarbamol of the Eromanga Basin units through the Dariven Fault and displacement along the Cork Fault. However, the displacement along the Cork Fault could not be properly constrained as explained in Section 4.1.2. Cross Section 20 (Fig. 4c) shows an area where regional faults are not identified but where the Galilee Basin was continuous. Lastly, Cross Section 23 (Fig. 4d) shows an area, where the Galilee Basin is nearly absent and the Stormhill Fault and Westland Structure are identified. Additionally two newly defined faults (Thomson River and Lochern faults) are identified, which are likely to play a relevant role on groundwater movement. Due to the sparseness of wells, the identification of structures and their influence on geometric relationships between the stratigraphic units is based primarily on the seismic surfaces. Although structures can be easily recognised in these seismic surfaces (Fig. 5), it is difficult to determine the timing of movement for particular faults. However, through the assessment of vertical fault displacement of different units within the stratigraphic sequence, the understanding on the timing of regional fault movement can be refined (Fig. 5).

Sample sizes were small (between 10 and 50), and the results need to be interpreted with caution. Detailed results can be found in Supplementary Appendix B, but these are summarized as follows grouped by outcome and then by intervention (garden

Galunisertib cost or horticulture therapy). Seven studies reported on dementia-related behaviors in response to time in a garden or engaged in horticultural activities. Agitation was reported in 6 studies, and other dementia-related outcomes, such as pacing, exit seeking, and violence, were reported less frequently and with mixed results. Only one study reported a negative trend of increased aggression over a 3-month period.20 Three garden studies measured agitation before and after exposure to a garden environment and

all used the Cohen-Mansfield Agitation Inventory (CMAI). All studies reported a positive trend18, 19 and 24 with CMAI scores, indicating reduced agitation associated with visiting the garden (P < .01); for example, Detweiler and colleagues 24 indicate an effect size of d = 0.64. Three studies measured dementia-related behaviors before and after horticultural therapy. 28, 30 and 32 Two studies 30 and 32 used an RCT design and report mixed results on the effectiveness of horticultural therapy in reducing physical and nonphysical GDC-0068 purchase aggression (also using CMAI). A positive trend was seen in the verbal agitation scores in both studies. Vuolo 28 also found a positive trend in the effect of horticultural therapy on physical and verbal aggression and a reduction in physically nonaggressive behaviors in a pre-post study of 50 residents with dementia, but the positive P-type ATPase changes were not statistically significant ( Supplementary Appendix B). Pacing or walking behaviors (including exit seeking and trespassing) were measured in 2 studies by observation.19 and 20 Both studies showed a positive trend in reduced pacing, trespassing, and exit seeking,

but also a decrease in walking (directed walking), which may be seen as a negative trend. Mooney and Lenore Nicell21 compared behaviors in 5 residential sites, 2 of which had gardens and 3 of which did not. Substantial differences between the residential sites with and without gardens were noted, with the rate of violence decreasing by 19% in the garden sites and increasing sevenfold in the nongarden sites over 1 year of observation. Similarly, the total rate of incidents decreased by 3.5% in the garden sites and increased threefold in the nongarden sites over the same period. However, it is difficult to know if these differences relate directly to the impact of the garden or if they are due to other aspects of the individual residential sites. In 2 studies,19 and 31 emotional outcomes, including pleasure, anxiety, interest, anger, sadness, and contentment, were measured by trained researchers using the Affect Rating Scale.

The CPT for this variable is obtained using the model studying the efficiency of the oil combating fleet of Finland, see Lehikoinen et al. (2013). In their model, the variable is dependent on factors such as wave height, oil type, the time the combating vessels have to operate, their Selleck GSK269962 tank size and the rate at which they can fill and empty their tanks. The simulations that are created with the use of aforementioned model are done separately for each of the oil-combating vessels over a range of external factors. The oil-combating efficiency decreases when the wave

height increases. Louhi is the only combating vessel still able to collect some oil still when the waves are higher than two meters, while all other vessels are ineffective in such conditions. When multiple PI3K Inhibitor Library purchase vessels are sent to the oil spill, their respective efficiencies are added together and their CPTs are combined. We assume it is unlikely that any of the vessels are able to collect light oil, as it does not tend to adhere to the brushes used. Therefore, all vessels are given the lowest possible oil-combating efficiency for this type of oil, regardless of other parameters. Depending on the size of an oil spill, the oil-combating vessels may have to empty their

tanks one or several times during the course of the operation, and the time that this procedure takes is subtracted from the total time that they have to operate before the oil slick reaches the shore. The Oil-combating efficiency node has a total of 20 states and results in an extensive CPT, which is not shown here. The Number of vessels sent exists in 11 states, ranging from Venetoclax purchase 0 to 10, indicating the number of combating vessels sent to the location of the accident.

This variable estimates the oil-combating efficiency of the vessels used in the operations, and is expressed in cubic meters per hour. We assume that the efficiency of a vessel is smaller if she operates in a group, when compared to individual operation. This may be due to the fact that the ships have to follow certain path when conducting group work; they need to perform evasive manoeuvres to avoid collisions with each other and they cannot navigate freely. This assumption implies that the group efficiency is smaller than the sum of all individual efficiencies of oil-combating ships involved. As no studies have been conducted on how multiple vessels operate together and how other joining vessels affect the performance of the fleet operating in the scene, it is difficult to provide a reliable estimate for this parameter. In this paper, we assume that this parameter depends only on the number of vessels joining the operation, meaning that with each joining vessel, the overall efficiency of the fleet is reduced by 2%.

Similar relations were also reported by Kazmin et al. (2010), showing a gradual SST increase in the Black Sea between 1994 to Ponatinib 1999, in connection with local and large-scale atmospheric forcing, and a lagged North Aegean SST behaviour. Indeed, the 1998–2001 North Aegean Sea surface data, averaged spatially over the main physiographic units (Table 2), suggest the occurrence of significantly warmer surface water masses over the Thracian

Sea and Lemnos Plateau during the summers of 1999 (24.07°C and 22.66°C, respectively) and 2000 (22.67°C and 22.58°C, respectively). Similar patterns were depicted in the Sporades Basin, with warmer water observed during the summers of 1998 (24.48°C) and 2000 (25.02°C), probably attributed to the advection of warmer BSW combined with local heat exchange and mixing processes. In contrast, surface water variability in the LIW-dominated Chios Basin showed a gradual temperature decrease, from 23.36°C in 1998 to 21.52°C in 2001. Increased surface water temperature in the Thracian Sea, Lemnos Plateau and Sporades Basin seems counterbalanced by relatively

cooler sub-surface water of 13.98°C, 14.11°C and 13.84°C, Talazoparib respectively, during the summer 2000 period. Furthermore, during these warmer winter and summer periods over the broader Black Sea area, evaporation and subsequent precipitation rates increase, and since the system functions under a positive water balance (Özsoy & Ünlüata 1997), this may increase the BSW outflow through the Dardanelles, stabilizing thermal and saline water column stratification (Stanev ifoxetine & Peneva 2002). Present results indicate a strongly stratified water column throughout the Thracian Sea (ΔT0/50 m = 9.20°C; ΔS0/50 m = 6.8) and the Lemnos Plateau (ΔT0/50 m = 7.60°C; ΔS0/50 m = 6.1) during summer

1999. The influence of southerly winds in summer 2001 promoted turbulent mixing (ΔS0/50 m = 2.7), leading to the elevated surface salinity values recorded in the Thracian Sea (34.78), Lemnos Basin (36.33) and Sporades Basin (36.94), followed by a lowering of the halocline down to 70 m depth. Wind mixing gradually shifts the bottom of the BSW layer to warmer and more saline conditions. This is shown in Figure 11a, which presents the T-S diagram for the Thracian Sea and Lemnos Plateau. Point A (T = 13.14°C, S = 37.57, σt = 28.52) defines the bottom of BSW in summer 1999, point B in summer 2000 (T = 13.31°C, S = 38.35, σt = 29.16) and point C during summer 2001 (T = 14.39°C, S = 38.58, σt = 29.10). Similar effects of turbulent mixing appear in the Sporades Basin ( Figure 11c) and Thermaikos Gulf ( Figure 11d), while in the Chios Basin the thermohaline conditions remain almost unchanged ( Figure 11b).

In Northern Eurasia and Beringia (including Siberia and Alaska), 9 genera (35%) of megafauna (Table 3) went extinct in two pulses (Koch and Barnosky, 2006:219). Warm weather adapted megafauna such as straight-tusked elephants, hippos, hemionid horses, and short-faced bears went extinct between 48,000 and 23,000 cal BP and cold-adapted

megafauna such as mammoths went extinct between 14,000 and 11,500 cal BP. In central North America, approximately 34 genera (72%) of large mammals went extinct between about 13,000 and 10,500 years ago, including mammoths, mastodons, giant ground sloths, horses, tapirs, camels, bears, saber-tooth cats, and a variety of Trichostatin A cost other animals (Alroy, 1999, Grayson, 1991 and Grayson, 2007). Alectinib mouse Large mammals were most heavily affected, but some small mammals, including a skunk and rabbit, also went extinct. South America lost an even larger number and percentage, with 50 megafauna genera (83%) becoming extinct at about the same time. In Australia, some 21 genera (83%) of large marsupials, birds, and reptiles went extinct (Flannery and

Roberts, 1999) approximately 46,000 years ago, including giant kangaroos, wombats, and snakes (Roberts et al., 2001). In the Americas, Eurasia, and Australia, the larger bodied animals with slow reproductive rates were especially prone to extinction (Burney and Flannery, 2005 and Lyons et al., 2004), a pattern that seems to be unique to late Pleistocene extinctions.

According to statistical analyses by Alroy (1999), this late Quaternary extinction episode is more selective for large-bodied animals than any other extinction interval in the last 65 million years. Current evidence suggests that the initial human Sitaxentan colonization of Australia and the Americas at about 50,000 and 15,000 years ago, respectively, and the appearance of AMH in Northern Eurasia beginning about 50,000 years ago coincided with the extinction of these animals, although the influence of humans is still debated (e.g., Brook and Bowman, 2002, Brook and Bowman, 2004, Grayson, 2001, Roberts et al., 2001, Surovell et al., 2005 and Wroe et al., 2004). Many scholars have implicated climate change as the prime mover in megafaunal extinctions (see Wroe et al., 2006). There are a number of variations on the climate change theme, but the most popular implicates rapid changes in climate and vegetation communities as the prime driver of extinctions (Grayson, 2007, Guthrie, 1984 and Owen-Smith, 1988). Extinctions, then, are seen as the result of habitat loss (King and Saunders, 1984), reduced carrying capacity for herbivores (Guthrie, 1984), increased patchiness and resource fragmentation (MacArthur and Pianka, 1966), or disruptions in the co-evolutionary balance between plants, herbivores, and carnivores (Graham and Lundelius, 1984).